Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Agricultural Development

Agricultural development can be defined as; an improvement in all aspects or practices of agriculture that can lead to better yields or output. Green revolution also refers to the introduction of modern farming practices such as improve seeds, tractors, pesticides, weedicides among others into agriculture Institutional bottlenecks on the other hand refer to a set of long standing factors that militates against the development of agriculture overtime. It therefore clearly indicates that the development of agriculture is green revolutionary dependant; the institutional factors that hinder the total implementation of the green revolution agenda of agricultural development include the following; Cultural belief system and ideological orientation; the cultural practices, values, norms, and views of most Ghanaian communities are anti-modern and difficult to change. It is in this sense that most beliefs system is so rigid that any other practices seen contrary to them are mostly rejected. The Ghanaian beliefs such as constructions of mounds as a method of farming is seen as the best as against the use of tractors for ploughing the lands, to an extent that, though others can afford the services of tractors to plough their land, they rather claim that the use of tractor for ploughing distract the soil profile, hence reject it which could have led to higher yields. They therefore stick to the old methods of farming. Besides that, there is low technological development in less developed nations like Ghana which also affect green revolution of agriculture in the sense that most agricultural inputs are imported into these nations hence there is persistent low productivity. Low level of education is one of the impediments to green revolution of agriculture in Ghana in particular. The educational level of most farmers is so low that, it becomes difficult to teach the peasant farmers modern farming practices, the few extension officers who are trained to educate farmers on better farming practices finds it difficult to do so as dissemination of information to local people becomes difficult due to language barrier. English language as the common medium of communication is not understood by the local people and if an extension officer does no understand the native language of the people his work is affected, the roblem of inadequate trained agricultural workers and appropriate logistics is yet another challenge to green revolution in Ghana, informal education that is being organized to educate farmers, also lacks the commitment of the local farmers and mostly fails. The nature of agricultural institutions in Ghana is also one of the outstanding factors that militated against the development of agricultural in Ghana. Most agricultural institutions are located out of reach of the peasant farmers.  Most of these institutions are located in urban areas whereas most farmers in the country live and work in the rural areas, these institutions are also filled with people with little or no knowledge in modern farming practices and the few available personnel have to battle with a large population size of farmers as it is noted in Ghana that the extension officer to farmer ratio is one officer is to one hundred and forty thousands farmers (1: 140000). This clearly indicates that it is impossible for the few extension officers to carry out their work effectively with this large farming population. Moreover the few officers are not motivated enough to give up their best. Furthermore, government policies in Ghana towards agricultural development are nothing to write home about. Agriculture as the mainstay of the economy, which should have been given the highest attention on yearly budgetary allocation most at times receives the least attention of government in resource allocation. This has inevitably led to the inability of agricultural institutions to supply farmers with inputs in order to boost their production levels. The little funds that are allocated to agriculture are also face with the problem of poor distribution as the target areas are not reached. The poor agricultural nature is also faced with unfavorable competition in the international markets with the advance nations like U. S. due to trade liberalization; which makes it possible for countries to be able to export its agricultural goods or produces to other countries. This has led to unhealthy competition and to the killing of the local agricultural industries in most less developed nations. The advance nations with better agricultural inputs couple with high level of technology and quality agricultural produces simply take over the market and display our local farmers. This has led to l0ow productivity as they are faced with strong competition in the market and at most times they are the hard-hit. These advance nations brings into the less developed countries their cheap and subsidized agricultural products, hence get better patronage than their local competitors. This is evident in Ghana, as imported rice is better patronized than the locally produced rice. Hence trade liberalization among nations has affected agricultural development among less developed nations like Ghana. Lastly, the poorly organized nature of our farmers is also another problem militating against the green revolution of agriculture. The farmers are not united to be able to access financial support for large scale farming; in other words they do not form co-operative societies which could give them a well developed foundation to ask for financial assistance from financial institutions and corporate bodies to embark on commercial farming activities this imply that these peasant farmers can not increase productivity and continue to remain in the peasant cycle. The above are some of the institutional factors that have militated against the smooth green revolution of agriculture in Ghana; hence the reforming of such institutional bottlenecks forms the main path to well green revolution of agriculture in Ghana

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

The Hidden Side of Domestic Violence Essay

This book was written by Dutton and Donald about domestic violence. It gave us the history about assault on spouses. Dutton and Donald talks of two major social phenomena that emerged in North American and the Western countries in Europe. Rights of women were acknowledged by everyone after long and tedious struggle of women to get recognized. It goes further to state the measures and incidences of violence including theories concerning women assault. The cycle of violence and people who possess abusive personalities are stated even assault on men. This book is very important for it teaches about recognizing one another especially those who possess violent personalities. It is good for the society for it educates one to accept others rights and difference between marriage duties and rights. This book shows us that we ca eliminate all odds in our society and try make each and every person to feel that he or she belongs to it fully without any intimidation and discrimination. Donald and Dutton’s ideas can be used to help those who possess abusive personality by attending psychiatrists and avoiding any abusive behavior. It can be used to educate spouses in marriage so that they will evade future marriage problems. Also, in the current globalized world, the ideas in this book can help us socialize and live together in peace and harmony especially in a domestic set up. This book can help people who are married in other cultures to harmonize or leave those cultures and then live with the acceptance and respect of each other’s rights. Weiss, Elaine. Surviving Domestic Violence: Voices of Women Who Broke Free. Volcano: Volcano Press,  2004. Print. In this book, Surviving Domestic Violence, Elaine Weiss wrote about several stories of women who had been subjected to domestic violence. She got these stories by interviewing and later writing them down. It talks of what they went through and how they later managed to escape it. It gives reasons as to why such incidences were happening. After getting out, the women took a very long time to finally recover the psychological and wounds they got due to this violence but some were yet to fully recover for the ordeal they went through changed their lives negatively. Those who managed to deal with stress after coming out say that they are stronger than ever. The different stories taught in this book are the true causes and effects of domestic related violence. They bring about what one goes through and how one feels while undergoing the violence. Also, it helps to understand what to do when such incidences happen. It also shows its effects and how they change one’s life therefore targeting those who abuse their partners. This book is a very example as it shows us that those who have already freed themselves from the marital abuses can educate others like the youth and couples about domestic violence o that they refrain from them. The stories are very encouraging for they give people motivation to solve their problems and also how one can escape this. They can be used by those specialists in parental guidance and counselling to help them shape their marriage when such incidences are reported to them and even before couples get married. The ideas in this book can enable those undergoing abuses to get out and look for a better marriage partner. One only needs to accept that he or she is undergoing domestic violence and therefore if it cannot be solved, one can boldly walk away and start life afresh. Marriage is not slavery but it’s a path towards achieving your goals in life as one needs a partner who is willing to assist where possible so that they make all their dreams in life to happen. Abused Men: The Hidden Side of Domestic Violence Cook, Philip W. Abused Men: The Hidden Side of Domestic Violence. Westport: Praeger,  2009. Print. Phillip exposes how men goes through domestic violence silently. He talks of how real it is that men are going through domestic violence without the society suspecting. He brings several stories of men who have been undergoing through such violence from their wives for a long time. Then he goes further to give tips that can help one to find freedom from any form of abuse. The he talks of resistance and acceptance for those who are abusing their spouses and how they come to realize that each and every person deserves to be respected. He also talks of new great approaches that can be used to reduce domestic violence. He then gives survey statistics of domestic violence in Canada. It also talks about how the relationship changes between the offenders to their victims. The story is helpful in realizing what some men go through. It gives statistics of domestic violence that people are not ready to talk about. The society is helped to recognize men who are undergoing domestic abuses from their spouses. It is helpful because statistics help people to know how long they have been living with their friends undergoing abuses without even realizing it. It talks of acceptance which can help those who are yet to accept their spouse the way he or she is. It is helpful for it shows how much men can be subjected to torture with use of dangerous tools such as knives, machetes and any other type of a life-threatening tool or machine so that one can force their partner to follow her commands. Philip’s ideas can be used to know the men who are undergoing abuses experienced from their wives and enable us to help them come out of the problem. Also, it encourages courage especially those who are not courageous enough to come out and tell their ordeal to the society. This book can help men to free themselves away from any form of abuse and intimidation from their partners. This book is very important as it can be used to tell the extent in which men undergo violence in real life situations. Men can also use this book to help them evade any other form of domestic violence against them and therefore reducing the number of men who die as a result of domestic violence. Howard, Louise, Louise Howard, Gene Feder, and Roxane Agnew-Davies. Domestic Violence and Mental Health. London: RCPsych Publications,  2013. Print. This book has been written collectively by different authors who are specialized in domestic violence ideas. It talks about prevalence and physical health impacts of domestic violence. It talks about types of abuses in marriage such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse and coercive control and also it questions them and gives clues on how they are brought about and their solution. It also talks of effects of the person’s psychology which is deeply affected even in the future that may not get them out of his mind. It stresses on survival strategies to evade such abuses and also how one can control his or her mind to avoid damaging his or her psychology. This book also gives the kinds of interventions and responses people can take after or when you suspect any form of violence. Advices from professionals on domestic violence are also written down. This book has directives on what causes mental problems after abuse. It also gives us ways on how to control ourselves and maintain a state of calmness so as not disturb our stressed mind. It educates us on different forms of domestic violence. It has been written by different qualified professionals in each field is represented. It is an important text for it has the advices on domestic violence from professionals. The story in this book can help us to evade mental problems due to domestic abuses and can be used by psychiatrists to know what causes a certain mental disorder and they can use the ideas here to enable their clients who are undergoing this problem to get out of it. It can also be used to educate couples so that when they are not in good terms to try to their best solve the problem before it gets out of hand. The advices written in this book can also be used in the same way to advice people especially those undergoing domestic violence depending on the root cause and the kind of violence. Kubany, Edward S, Mari A. McCaig, and Janet R. Laconsay. Healing the Trauma of Domestic Violence: A Workbook for Women. Oakland: New Harbinger This book is directed to those who have been freed from domestic violence and especially women. Due to violent domestic situations, one may develop post-traumatic stress disorders which are not easy to get out of one’s mind and can negatively affect that person. It is aimed at giving programs known as cognitive trauma therapy which one undergoes to help him or her come back to normal. It gives the techniques one can use them to help himself or herself by identifying any form of trauma and distress one has that can enable one to deal with it to help control and change his or her life . This book is targeting those who have been affected by domestic violence so that they come back to normal for those who were traumatized. It is an educational tool for the society to understand the devastating effects of wife battering. Therefore it makes us to even identify those who are going through post-traumatic stress. It contains technics and procedures one can follow so that they make him deal any results brought by domestic violence. It is also helpful as it helps chase out any fears one has due to what they went through during that horrifying period of domestic violence. Psychiatrists can use this book to help traumatized people by helping them to come back to normal. The ideas here can help us to even identify those going through stress in their marriage so that they are helped before it’s too late. This book can be used also by the parents who are not in good terms to read and understand what one may go through if such incidences happen. The techniques in this book about dealing with trauma after violence can be used by psychiatrists to help clients who underwent this so that they identify what they are in trauma of and this can help them to accordingly better their lives. It can also be used individually as one can remember well what went wrong in that marriage and help better their lives. References Cook, Philip W. Abused Men: The Hidden Side of Domestic Violence. Westport: Praeger,  2009. Print. Dutton, Donald G. Rethinking Domestic Violence. Vancouver: UBC Press,  2006. Print. Howard, Louise, Louise Howard, Gene Feder, and Roxane Agnew-Davies. Domestic Violence and Mental Health. London: RCPsych Publications,  2013. Print. Kubany, Edward S, Mari A. McCaig, and Janet R. Laconsay. Healing the Trauma of Domestic Violence: A Workbook for Women. Oakland: New Harbinger Weiss, Elaine. Surviving Domestic Violence: Voices of Women Who Broke Free. Volcano: Volcano Press,  2004. Print. Source document

Compare and Contrast of Florida and Hawaii

During the summer and winter, many families like to go on vacations to tropical locations in order to take in the beautiful and amazing sights that they might not be able to experience at home. Two popular places to visit are Florida and Hawaii. While many believe that one beach community is as good as any other, there are many differences between Hawaii and Florida that make them suited for different people, depending on what kind of vacation they want to experience. In particular there are differences in the cultures, weather, and attractions of these two beach communities. Although both Florida and Hawaii are tropical locations, their cultures are far from similar. Florida has a very â€Å"typical† American feel to it. It is rich in busy streets, screaming kids, rude and unfriendly people, and fat-filled restaurants with a cheeseburger always on the menu somewhere. Besides everyone being in a bikini everywhere on a hot, summer day, the people in Florida are really no different than you and I. It may seem like everyone goes to Florida for a vacation to get away from their everyday lives, but they really are going to the same problems in a different location. In Hawaii, however, you become a part of a brand new experience that you have probably never experienced before. Beaches there are not lined from end to end with restaurants and rental shops; instead, they are lined with palm trees and all of their untouched, natural wonders that have been there since the islands formed. In Hawaii, you get away from the â€Å"real† world and get a chance to experience the rich island culture that you might never have known about. The hustle and bustle of the inner city life and the monotonous nine to five job of the suburban life are not seen in Hawaii. It is very relaxed, and every day seems like it is a new adventure waiting for you to discover it. The food in Hawaii is also a departure from something that you could get any other day. There are numerous island foods that you would never find anywhere else, like poi, a bread that is made out of purple potatoes, or Hawaiian shave ice, where they combine beans with a variety of flavors of ice cream. Also, pineapple is a very popular addition to just about anything you could imagine, and the food is usually made to be â€Å"volcano† hot. As far as an escape goes, Hawaii is the perfect place to go to experience an amazing new culture. Even if you cannot tell the difference between the cultures of Hawaii and Florida, the weather easily sets the two apart. As far as tropical locations go, many people expect the weather to be warm and sunny, looking for a perfect day to go to the beach and relax next to the ocean. In Florida, though the heat and humidity is almost unbearable. It makes you want to immediately jump into the ocean to try a cool off under the hot sun. Unfortunately, with the sun beating down on the ocean and the humidity in the air trapping all of the heat, the ocean also heats up very quickly and it becomes more like a hot tub, which is not the most relaxing of choice in the middle of a warm, summer day. With all of the humidity in Florida, it is also very common for a sudden downpour to erupt and leave you soaking wet like you have been in the ocean all day. Despite these flaws in the perfect, tropical weather you expect, when you do get a nice day in Florida, it makes you wish the day would never end and that you would never have to leave. Hawaii’s weather makes the best days in Florida seem like a hot, humid day in Missouri in the middle of August. It barely rains in Hawaii, always leaving you with a nice day to go to the beach or go on a nature hike. Even though it may reach up to 90 degrees, there is very little humidity, so even the hottest of days feels like a comfortable, cool, breezy afternoon. Also, when you want to jump into the ocean and cool off, it is nice and refreshing. Hawaii truly displays the typical weather you would expect out of a tropical island and leads to a relaxing getaway for anyone who wishes to enjoy it. One of the biggest differences between Florida and Hawaii are the attractions they have to offer and what you can do with your time in either place. As you may expect, the major attraction of both Florida and Hawaii are the numerous beaches that populate the two states. Beyond the beaches, however, both Florida and Hawaii offer unique attractions that will amuse people of all ages. In Florida, one of the major attractions is Disney World, a resort designed to let your inner child loose and experience the world of cartoons that you watched as a kid. While many people see Disney World as an amusement park for kids, the park can be enjoyed by people of all ages. There are many other amusement parks in Florida that are â€Å"hot spots† for vacations, such as Sea World, Universal Studios, and Busch Gardens. Another big travel spot in Florida is the Florida Everglades and Everglades National Park. The Everglades is a massive wetland ecosystem in the southern portion of Florida that offers many people a chance to explore a place they couldn’t find anywhere else in the world. While Florida may have amusement parks and some natural exhibits to visit, though, it cannot compare with the beauty of Hawaii. Hawaii may not have amusement parks, but it makes up for it with all of its amazing, natural attractions. The beaches are beautiful, with crystal clear water that allows you to watch a lot of undersea life without ever putting on a scuba suit. Some of the nature walks that you can go on in Hawaii are simply breathtaking because of all the beautiful scenery that you pass along the way. You can ride horses on the beach, take a submarine ride through the ocean, and, if you are brave enough, even go to the top of a volcano and experience all of the beautiful landscape that actually grows around it. Furthermore, major attraction in Hawaii is the Pearl Harbor naval base and memorial. People from all over the world, even from Japan come to the memorial to see what is left behind from a great American tragedy. You can still see the oil left in the ocean in some spots, and you can walk over a glass bridge that allows you to look down and see a sunken battleship. No matter what you choose to do, you are guaranteed to find something in Hawaii that you could not find anywhere else in the world. Whether it is the food that you eat or the weather you experience, there is a lot that separates Florida and Hawaii. Both places offer a unique experience that you normally would not have in your everyday life. However, you can visit Florida and go to an amusement park with your family and friends; I would recommend seeing Hawaii and experience a culture you may have never seen before.

Monday, July 29, 2019

See attachment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

See attachment - Coursework Example The alternative, renewable energy sources serve as a great source of energy; however, they also bear challenges in their usage. One serious challenge facing the wind as a form of energy source is its lack of adequate power to turn the turbines. Consequently, this leads to little or no production of usable energy. Solar energy also has its share of challenges. Integrating solar panels within homes has become a challenge; people do not find the urgent need. Another challenge facing the alternative, renewable energy sources is that the cost of fossil fuels is cheap, in America. This makes it difficult for renewable energies to penetrate the energy market. Geothermal energy forms another renewable energy source, which originates within the earth’s crust. The geothermal energy undergoes conversion into usable energy within plants constructed for this purpose. It is also noteworthy that coal, oil and natural gases form nonrenewable energy resources. As time passes, these resources are on a constant depletion. The common challenge experienced by the nonrenewable energy resources is the difficulty in controlling their depletion. It is a challenge, as man has no way of replacing the used resources. In the management of nonrenewable energy sources, man is finding it difficult to find and use an alternative energy source that matches the amount of energy they provide. Additionally, most of the nonrenewable energy sources cause environmental pollution, making their management a difficult

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Marks And Spencers Business Strategy Assignment

Marks And Spencers Business Strategy - Assignment Example The company has a very humble beginning but it has grown significantly over time to become a leader within the business industry of its operations. The company has dominated the British market for a long time. Its dominance is attributed to the value and quality of the clothing products that it offers its customers with a view of gaining their loyalty to its products. Marketing Week, (2005, p. 9) reveals that it is through the value that Marks and Spencer has for the needs of the customers that shoppers have been obliged to desire its products as opposed to those of the competitors. With time, the company has grown and diversified its products significantly and in addition to clothing, the company provides its customers with furniture, food and loan services. This paper gives a critical discussion and analysis of the business strategy of Marks and Spencer Plc with a view of analyzing and evaluating the company’s strategy using Porters Generic Strategy Framework. Moreover, the company is assessed in terms of acceptability, feasibility and suitability toward all of its stakeholders. Analyzing Marks and Spencer’s Strategy Business Strategy In 1999, the glory that Marks and Spencer had in the market started to crumble. This was illustrated by the fall in profits. As a result of the failure that the company experienced, it has endeavored to apply the most suitable business strategy so that it would remain competitive within the market and maintain its glory. Davies (1999, p. 60) points out that Marks and Spencer adopted a Competitive Strategy Model and Value Chain so that it would recover from the previous failures and challenges and thus maintain its competitive advantage while remaining as the market leader of the industry of its operation.... Davies (1999, p. 60) points out that Marks and Spencer adopted a Competitive Strategy Model and Value Chain so that it would recover from the previous failures and challenges and thus maintain its competitive advantage while remaining as the market leader of the industry of its operation. Kenny (2009) adds that it is through the Competitive Strategy Model and Value Chain that Marks and Spencer has regained its glory which is revealed by its current success and competitiveness in the market. The SWO analysis of the company which reflects its competitiveness is presented in Appendix 1. Business Environment and Strategy Datamonitor (2007, p. 1) demonstrates that the five forces of generic Strategies as postulated by Porter have been proved to be the most effective aids for businesses in the attainment of a competitive edge within the business environment. The key areas under which Porters Generic Strategy Framework analyzes businesses the power of suppliers, the power of buyers, the thr eat of substitutes, the threat of entry and the competitive rivalry. Grundy (2005, p. 195) explains that the business environment involves various forces which determine the success of a company and these include competition and economic, social, legal and cultural forces. The ability of a company to survive the challenges which the environment presents it with is determined by the implementation of a suitable business strategy which ensures that a competitive advantage is gained and attained. Beaver (1999, p. 325) recommends a Competitive Strategy Model as a way of allowing a company to overcome the environmental forces and thus become a market leader and the most competitive business in the market. Therefore the implementation of the Competitive Strategy Model by Marks and Spencer

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Do the general principles and strategies of strategic planning apply Essay

Do the general principles and strategies of strategic planning apply to IT planning What may apply, what may not, and why - Essay Example According to druck (2011), the last principle involves identifying the resources that are already available or those that are needed in order to begin. All planning practices may be motivated by systematic determination to yield fundamental actions and decisions that can guide and shape organizations or businesses. Strategic planning aims at developing a specific, solid road maps or plans that can manage a firm and the necessary tools required to manage or start one. Some critics however, insinuate that some of the effectiveness of strategic planning has faded slowly. Most managers luckily enough are still awareof the importance of implementing an effective strategic planning. Flemming (2012) notes thatstrategic planning demands a lot of time and attention and if the principles are not followed to the letter then it can be very frustrating. Onthe other hand, if conducted correctly they can help a company to identify its effective point within the industry. There are a number of perspectives and model approaches that are used to implement strategic planning. The implementation and development of the various tools depends on a variety of factors like the organization’s culture and leadership, organization’s size, complexity and nature of the business environment. For example, a firm may start using the same matching baselines as Wal-Mart and McDonald but at a certain period in the progress, it will need to make vital changes and assimilate its strategies (Druck, 2011).The same applies to general principles relating to IT planning, general principles are very effective but will only take a firm to certain point. Ten years ago system and process integration could have been eliminated and abolished from strategic planning. This is because critics had predicted that this would form an IT platform structure that would major in the business sector. Currently, the level at which a company carries out IT

Friday, July 26, 2019

Finance Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Finance Assignment - Essay Example However, the best practise to calculate the cost of capital is to consider the market value of the assets, in which case, the difference can be significant. The WACC is calculated using only the cost of debt and the cost of equity. It is important to note that raising capital via. Debt increases the beta value of the company, i.e., the risk of investing is increased, as the company is obligated to pay the debt. Hence the cost of equity is also increased due to this change in capital structure. The debt ratio of Boral limited is computed as the ratio of total debt to total assets which is equal to (1518/5816.60) 26.1%. This is lesser when compared to the Commonwealth bank which has a higher debt ratio. Also, the Commonwealth bank of Australia has lesser short term money and in order to compute the liquidity position of the bank, the cash as well as the loans and deposits are to be considered. The gearing ratio of the bank has to be much higher, as the entire operation of the bank involves taking deposits and lending loans. However the gearing ratio of Boral cannot go much higher as it will affect the debt rating of the company. From the balance sheets, it is evident that Boral Limited has a number of non-tangible assets whereas all the assets and liabilities are monetary in nature. The banks normally seek and increase liabilities in order to build the assets. However manufacturing companies tend to build assets and thrive to increase the value. As there are opportunities for business development with the additional capital raised by making the company public, it is essential to estimate the business growth. This will give an estimate on the earnings per share. Based on the earnings, the plowback rate can be computed for continuous growth. Hence from the earnings per share and the plowback rate, the dividend payments can be forecast during the growth period. Case 1: Assuming that the business can expand for the next 6 years and

Thursday, July 25, 2019

A passage to India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

A passage to India - Essay Example Aziz and friends longs for the company of an English man, the common wish of the Indians during that time. Both, Aziz and Fielding have similarities in their behavior that they are curious in Indian mysteries. Moreover, Fielding has high respects for Indian tradition and is high tolerant. It may be this common fact that befriends them. The western similarity of Aziz is clear when Moore explains her experience with Aziz in the mosque. Only much later Ronny and others realize that she was speaking about a Muslim, who exactly follows the western way of living. The words of Miss Quested are notable in this context when she exclaimed, â€Å"A Mohammedan! How perfectly magnificent!† (Foster 9). 2. What do you think really happened to Adel Quested in the cave? What might the echo signify symbolically in the novel? Adel Quested had a wild experience in the Marabar Caves where she was overcome with claustrophobia like Mrs. Moore. When she entered the cave alone, the echo of the sound a nd loneliness might have frightened her. This actually caused for her fainting and misunderstanding that Aziz molested her. However, the echo in the cave has symbolic significance in the novel with various propositions. There have been many inferences among the critics regarding this symbol. But one can see echo representing climax of horror of the novel.

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Cathay Pacific Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cathay Pacific Portfolio - Essay Example During a research carried out by global Skytrax Research poll carried in population of 4.4 million travelers, it lead to an award to Cathy Pacific for being considered the best airline (Exter & Tamara, 2012). In the following year, it was also awarded with another award for being the best airline Europe and best airline Transpacific for two consecutive years. Cathy Pacific Airlines of UK was founded in 1946 by Roy Farewell a businessperson as well as a pilot and Sydney de Kantzow an adventurous pilot operating Calcutta, Burma and Chungking (Lasok, 1998). Earlier, during the Second World War, the duo was flying to shanghai with a DC-3. Later, the British colonial government demanded that they officially register their company in order to operate Hong Kong. It was on the 24th of September that the two entrepreneurs registered their company by the name Cathy Pacific Airways Corporation. It was though the registration of Cathy Pacific that Roy Farrell import and export Company was formed . The purpose of forming Roy Farrell Import-Export Company was to undertake tax issues; they would also lease aircrafts from the Cathy Pacific Airlines. By the end of one year after its formation, Roy Farrell had possessed a second DC-3 and had ferried over 3000 passengers and an estimated cargo of 15000 kilograms from Australia and Asia. Cathy Pacific’s growth was rapid because in 1947, the airline had acquired an additional five DC-3 and another two smaller aircrafts (Catalina Fling boat), this enabled them to extend their operations to Macao towards the southern China. In 1948, Cathy Pacific had acquired a 45% market share in the airline industry. In 1962 to 1967, the airline’s growth was rapid; this made them enjoy its spectacular growth. The huge profits that they realized brought in the first international services in Osaka, Nagoya and Fukuoka in Japan. In late 1970s, the airline had expanded its services to other parts of Europe and North America. In mid 1980, t he airline was moving to London, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, Brisbane, san Francisco, Vancouver, Zurich, and Manchester. In 1990s, Cathy Pacific assembled the youngest fleets in the world. For the last five years, Cathy pacific has improved drastically in terms of carriage per annum. In 2008, it carried 13, 066, 011 passengers and 4046 tons of cargo. In 2009, it carried 37, 683, 812 passengers and 32, 128 tons of cargo. In 2010, it increased to 122, 544, 546 passengers and 111, 234 tons of cargo. This is a clear indication that Cathy Pacific is growing rapidly (Malcolm et al., 2013). This is because it was established long time ago thus making them to secure a larger market share. In addition, its long service has demonstrated its capabilities to carry even more passengers and cargo as time goes by. The future of Cathy Pacific seems exciting. The airline’s expectations are that they should have bought 100 aircraft by the year 2020. They will also introduce a third runway in Hong Ko ng, which is an international airport. Cathy Pacific substantial investment is to build their cargo terminal at the airport. They also plan to nurture catering, ground handling companies, aircraft maintenance and corporate headquarters at UK. Vision The vision of Cathy Pacific airlines is â€Å"To be the leading airline in the world†. this means that they should strive to excel in all they do. Objectives The main objectives of Cathy Pacific as set by the company management include: To ensure that customers are well served and satisfied To

Do Animals Feel Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Do Animals Feel - Research Paper Example The scientific research in evolutionary biology, cognitive ethology and neuroscience states that diverse animals have rich and deep emotional lives. Emotions served as the instrument to bond and attach animals with one another. Emotions, empathy and distinguishing right from wrong are the essential keys for survival on this complex environment and social interactions about lifestyle of different species (Goodal & Bekoff, 18). Humans experienced different forms of pain as well as animals. Pain is a subjective sensation that every individual verbalized and feel. According to Sneddon in 2011 people and animals almost have the same mechanisms of pain detection and have similar areas of brain involved in how the pain is processed. In addition, humans and animals are similar in terms of pain behaviors, but obviously, assessing pain in animals is more difficult to distinguish compared from human pain. Similarly, Sneddon identified the two components of pain: the physical hurt or discomfort which is caused by inflicting injury, illness or disease and the emotional hurt or suffering. Sneddon concluded that animals, just like humans, are capable of feeling physical and emotional pain (n.p.). Humans can feel emotional pain without physical injuries or disease such as after a loss of loved one, break-up of a relationship, loss of important things in their life, etc. Contrary to Sneddon’s conclusion, some scientists stated that animals are not capable of feeling emotional pain because of the reason that animals do not have neocortex or the thinking area which are found only in mammals and primates. Research of Sneddon showed that there is evidence that monkeys, dogs, cats, and birds demonstrate signs of emotional pain and behaviors associated with depression during painful experience, lethargy, anorexia, and unresponsiveness to other animals (Sneddon, n.p.). According to Bekoff in 2007, there was a doctoral research of student that required killing cats. As the autho r started the studies, the cat looks like sad and wanted to say something. After the experienced, the author decided to study different animal behavior that focus on social communication in large range of species. In adjunct with what the other scientists stated, Mark Bekoff discovered that animals feel joy, empathy, grief, embarrassment, anger, and even love (Bekoff, n.p.). In December 2005, a female humpback whale caught in crab lines, the weight of the whale which is 50 tons and 50 ft. in size which makes it difficult for the female humpback to blow above the water. A team of divers saved the female humpback whale and James Moskito, one of the rescuers described the feeling that the female humpback like to thank the rescuers for doing such good act. The whale stopped and pushed around a little bit and had some fun, the female humpback showed feelings of gratitude to the rescuers Bekoff, n.p.) Empathy is a feeling that is believed also to be felt by animals. An example of which is the livelier mouse. Every time the livelier mouse went over to get a drink and a piece of food and found out that the weaker mouse tried to bite the food, the livelier mouse moved the food gradually towards the water until the weaker mouse reached the food (Bekoff, n.p.). Animals can also show feelings of anger the same way as humans can do: they share common

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Compaer between to company playstation3 and Xbox Essay

Compaer between to company playstation3 and Xbox - Essay Example Its direct competitors in the gaming console markets are PlayStation and Dreamcast and even Nintendo. It is an America based gaming console producing company. Both these companies and the services and the products offered by these companies are quite different from each other. There is tremendous amount of different in the market share of both the gaming consoles. The PlayStation gaming console which was the first PlayStation produced by the Sony Computer Entertainment company sold around 100 million gaming consoles within a period of 9 years and six months since the day it was distributed. The second line of gaming console distributed under the brand name of PlayStation was PlayStation2 was able to ship over 150 million gaming consoles till the period of 2011. The third gaming console that was distributed under the brand umbrella of PlayStation was PlayStation3 which was able to ship over 70 million gaming consoles by 2012 and its distribution started in 2006. In comparison, Xbox was able to sell its only 9.25 million gaming consoles during the period of 2012 and this means that Xbox 360 experienced a decline of 24.8% in the games figure in comparison to the sales figure of 2011 which was 12.3 million gaming consoles (DAngelo 1). The PlayStation is even recognized for the sale of handheld gaming consoles and these gaming consoles are recognized as PSP which have helped PlayStation in positioning itself in a better manner than Xbox as Xbox does not have any handheld gaming consoles. Secondly, PlayStation provides online gaming support through its PlayStation gaming console and an extra console is not required to be purchased to play online. While Xbox even provides online gaming support, but players have to purchase Xbox Live which is an online version of Xbox 360 and is especially designed for online game play. One of the main different between these

Monday, July 22, 2019

Why Do Students Shyout and Do Not Participate in Classroom Discussion Essay Example for Free

Why Do Students Shyout and Do Not Participate in Classroom Discussion Essay Why do students shy out and do not participate in classroom discussion? Chapter 1 1. 1 Abstract Research has shown that shy students participate less frequently in class, are less likely to volunteer contributions, and give shorter and less elaborate answers to questions. Differences between shy and less shy students extend to their performance on standardized tests of vocabulary. The findings of two studies undertaken are presented; in each study participants were rated for shy out students by their class teachers. The first study (of 10-year-olds) found that shy students test performance was influenced by the form of the test they performed less well when the test was administered individually relative to the same test being administered to the whole class in a group setting. A second study asked students (aged 5-9 years) to sort and describe a set of pictures. The shy student was briefer with shorter mean length of utterances and less linguistic diversity, and this difference was obtained even when the influence of vocabulary test scores was statistically controlled. The findings suggest that shy student responses are constrained by their concerns about evaluation and do not necessarily reflect underlying differences in competence. The paper discusses the implications of this research for the classroom. 1. 2 Introduction This study examines the hypothesis that shy, silent students that do not participate in classroom discussion of contraceptives in Pakistan underreport contraceptive usage. Data were obtained from the 1984-85 and 1994-95 Contraceptive Prevalence Surveys, the 1990-91 Demographic and Health Survey, and a Punjab 1993 survey. Shy or silent students were 11. 9% in 1990-91 and 11. 3% in 1994-95. The revised CPRs are 23. 7% and 29. 1%, respectively. In 1993, a follow-up survey among non-users in Punjab province showed that CPR increased from 13% in 1990-91 to 18% in 1993. Shy out students was the most widely used method, followed by the condom and female sterilization. The increase in CPR is attributed to more open reporting among shy or silent student. Revised CPRs that include shy or silent student were consistent with total fertility rates in all 3 nationally representative surveys. Typically shy or silent student were older by about 2. 3 years than current student, Shy or silent students had longer duration of greater illiteracy, and less contraceptive knowledge about methods and sources this is the cause they do not participate in classroom discussion. Research has distinguished shy out students from introversion, although they are typically related. Introverts simply prefer solitary to social activities but do not fear social encounters as do the shy, while extroverts prefer social to solitary activities. Although the majority of shy are introverted, shy extroverts are found in many behavioral settings. They are privately shy and publicly outgoing. They have the requisite social skills and can carry them out flawlessly in highly structured, scripted situations where everyone is playing prescribed roles and there is little room for spontaneity. However, their basic anxieties about being found personally unacceptable, if anyone discovered their real self, emerge in intimate encounters or other situations where control must be shared or is irrelevant, or wherever the situation is ambiguous in terms of social demands and expectations. 1. 3 Problem statement The study was carried out under the title â€Å"why do students shy out and do not participate in classroom discussion†. 1. 4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of the study were: 1. To identify the symptoms of shy out students. 2. To explore the causes of shy out students. 3. To find out the relationship of shyness with the self-esteem of students. 4. To examine the effects of shyness on the self-esteem of shy out students. 5. Helping students learn more from lectures 6. Getting students to participate more in class 7. Recognizing the importance of conflict and conflict resolution in student learning groups 8. Introducing and reinforcing active learning 9. Getting students to come to class having read the assignment 10. Getting and giving feedback on meaningful class participation 11. Letting the classroom environment foster student participation 1. 5 Significance of topic There was a tendency for shyness to correlate significantly with measures of academic attainment. Even though the coefficients are moderate and explain little variance in test scores they are still meaningful and suggest that shy out students does have an impact on academic success. There exists some evidence of links between shyness and intelligence test scores, attainment measures, teacher-rated intelligence and academic performance but this has scarcely been explored. Contemporary theories of learning emphasize the importance of social interaction for learning, including the contribution of students active participation in classroom discussion. This suggests the value of exploring the educational significance of shy out students and reticence characteristics that may cause teachers few problems or draw attention to a students behavior but that might influence their achievement and adjustment. Being part of a discussion is a skill to learn, just like taking good lecture notes or learning to write a good essay exam. You are not doing shy students a favor by letting them off the hook completely. Rather, emphasize to your class that in order to have productive discussions, everyone needs to make a contribution. This can be done in a variety of ways: good listening, asking good questions, challenging what someone has said appropriately and inviting. Chapter 2 Review of Literature Shyness as a â€Å"state of discomfort or inhabitation in interpersonal situations that interferes with pursuing one’s interpersonal or professional goals†. According to Cheek Melchoir shyness involves the tendency to feel worried, awkward or tense when in the presence of others due to the prospect of interpersonal evaluation. Zolton and Long said that shyness is a fear of, or shy out students from, other people or social situations, can have many different causes depending on the individual student and the specific circumstances. Shyness is something that all students experience at one time or another. In most cases it is a normal, temporary behavior. In students, some shy out students is normal, especially when they are around 5-6 of age, and then again at about two years of age. Shyness at these ages is considered a normal part of development. Shyness becomes a problem in a student when it interferes with relationships with other people, with social situations, school, and other important aspects of a student’s life. In the light of the results of many psychological surveys concluded that substantial number of students regards themselves as shy. Shyness becomes problematic when it leads to the patterns of behavior that includes reluctance to enter social situations discomfort and inhibition in the presence of others exaggerated self, unresponsiveness, an increasingly negative social concept, or a combination of these . Shy individuals are anxious and unsure of themselves in social situations and often try to avoid interacting with others . Minimum level of shyness does not create problems for students. Frequent exposure to a particular or different situation makes them confident. But if they avoid contact with people, students of their age or exposure to different situations than shyness can create different problems for them. 2. 1 What is shyness? Almost all students act shy at times, especially when encountering a new person or situation. Quite sensibly most students take time to figure out what to do (and not do!) when presented with a novel situation. With time, most students start to feel comfortable in a new situation or with a person theyve recently met and, therefore, act more outgoing, relaxed, and spontaneous. Some students, however, warm up much more slowly than others. Shy students may look tense or distracted in institution as they worry about becoming the center of attention or doing something embarrassing. Teachers never see the students at home smiling, laughing, and chatting away with family members. 2. 2 Quiet or Shy out Students Even in small groups some students are quiet or shy. When we use learning logs, these students often describe their anxiety about revealing their ideas. Stating that all students are expected to participate in a discussion is likely to heighten that anxiety. We have these suggestions concerning shy students. First, the course description should make it clear that discussion is expected, and this should be emphasized in the first meeting of the class. Second, help should be available for shy students, from either the instructor or a counseling center. We strongly prefer helping students learn to participate, rather than helping them avoid taking part. Third, be accepting of degrees of participation. Students who have the courage to confront their shyness need time to develop, and all of us have â€Å"bad hair† days, when things are going terribly, and we need to be quiet. 2. 3 Strategies to Overcome Shy out students The following strategies to help the students to overcome their shyness in classroom discussion. 1. Tell the students about times when you acted bashful. 2. Explain to the children how they will benefit from acting outgoing Prevent labeling of the students as shy. 4. Reward the students for outgoing behavior 6. Read books with the students about individuals who overcome shyness or fears 8. Eliminate teasing of the students or reduce the impact 9. Teach the student to identify and to verbally express their emotions 10. Relationship of Shyness with Self-Esteem students 2. 4 Causes of shy out students Some students seem naturally shy, while others may revert to being shy because they are scared, ashamed or simply conditioned by past experiences to do so. A lack of confidence can cause a child to become shy, especially if she has been given reason to doubt her abilities in the past. This may lead to a student not participating in the classroom or having difficulty connecting with other students. * Lost Discussion Skills Students who do not interact with others in the classroom miss opportunities to learn crucial interpersonal skills. Also, students miss opportunities to develop debating skills. Students must learn how to be a part of a group discussion, which is commonly used in college classrooms and corporate boardrooms. * Lost Assertiveness Shy students may be less willing to mention when they are struggling with class material, causing them to not receive the help they need. People often interpret timidity as a sign of being stuck up, which can put off many people who would otherwise give the student learning opportunities. * Low Self-Efficacy Shy students often develop low self-esteem and a lack of confidence, which reduces the chances that they will have the confidence to pursue challenges that give them learning opportunities. Shyness can also create an unfortunate cycle, as timid students do not develop effective communication skills. The lack of social skills leads to negative social experiences for the shy out students, which increases the anxiety she feels, leading to more shy behavior. * Lost Opportunities Shyness is often caused by an exposure to new activities. Since students do not have as many experiences as adults, they experience more new activities, which can emotionally overwhelm those who have not yet developed coping skills. When students do not have enough experiences, they miss many opportunities to learn. Students who are very shy may be distracted from classroom material because of fears of social interaction or being called on in class. * Students often get ignored Shy students often have difficulty with class grades, but that largely comes from lower levels of class participation and oral skills. Whether shyness is learned, cultural, or genetic, it can present problems for both students and instructors, most commonly in smaller classes in which participation is expected/encouraged. Most classrooms have one or more students who struggle with making themselves heard or participating in class discussions. These students are usually called shy because they may speak softly, prefer to work independently or refuse to speak up at all. Often these students flourish with written assignments or tests, but fail in areas that require participation with classmates or presentations in front of other students. For shy students, keep some considerations in mind. Chapter 3 * Methodology The research approach was quantitative. Standardized questionnaires were used to collect data for the research. For this research, the research adopted analytical way of research. In this way, quantitative way of analysis was adopted. The researcher developed a questionnaire for getting the data from language teachers, and on the basis of collected data analysis was made. For effective research the feedback given by the teachers was presented in the tables and graphs. On the basis of quantitative analysis and suggestions were finalized. Research Tools Opinion scale on the pattern of analytical way of research was developed. Population The students constituted population of study. Sampling Thirty students were selected as a sample using simple random technique. Method of research The study was descriptive in nature. The survey method was used to collect the data from the respondents. For this purpose a questionnaire was developed and was administered to the sample of the study. Collection of data The questionnaire was administered to the students. For each statement, teachers were to respond one option from the given four options. * Analysis of data The data collected was tabulated, analyzed and interpreted in the light of the objectives of the study. Simple percentage was used for analysis of data. Table no. 3. 1 Do group activities break the shy out of the student? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 14| 47%| SA| 13| 44%| N| 0| 0%| DA| 0| 0%| SDA| 3| 10%| When students were asked the statement 47% students said they were agree group activities break the shy out of the student, 44% said strong agree and 10% said strong disagree. Table no. 3. 2 Have shy out students discuss their weakness in classroom as a communicator? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 0| 0%| SA| 9| 30%| N| 3| 10%| DA| 12| 40%| SDA| 6| 20%| 30% said strong agree,10 %neutral ,40%said disagree and 20%said strong disagree . Table no. 3. 3 Confer with parents give opportunities for shy out student to increase your involvement in classroom discussion? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 12| 40%| SA| 7| 24%| N| 3| 10%| DA| 8| 27%| SDA| 0| 0%| 40% said agree, 24%said strong agree, 10%said neutral and 27%disagree. Table no. 3. 4 Do shy students show sign of social anxiety? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 9| 30%| SA| 8| 27%| N| 3| 10%| DA| 10| 34%| SDA| 0| 0%| 30% said agree, 27%said strong agree, 10%said neutral and 34%disagree. Table no. 3. 5 Do not force the shy out students to prefer in front of the classmates, but encourage him to do? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 12| 40%| SA| 8| 27%| N| 8| 27%| DA| 2| 7%| SDA| 0| 0%| 40% said agree, 27%said strong agree, 27%said neutral and 7%disagree. Table no. 3. 6 Do not make shy out students that feel rushed to answer quickly? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 4| 14%| SA| 20| 67%| N| 6| 20%| DA| 0| 0%| SDA| 0| 0%| 14% said agree, 67%said strong agree and 20%said neutral Table no. 3. 7 Students have courage to comfort their shyness need time to develop? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 9| 30%| SA| 9| 30%| N| 3| 10%| DA| 27| 8%| SDA| 1| 4%| 30% said agree, 30%said strong agree, 10%said neutral, 8%disagree and 4% strong disagree. Table no. 3. 8 The environment which a student raised can affect his or her shyness in classroom discussion? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 7| 24%| SA| 18| 60%| N| 0| 0%| DA| 17| 5%| SDA| 0| 0%| 24% said agree, 60%said strong agree and 5%disagree. Table no. 3. 9 Some students have problematically shy out in varying degree? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 3| 10%| SA| 3| 10%| N| 20| 67%| DA| 2| 7%| SDA| 2| 7%| 10% said agree, 10%said strong agree, 67%said neutral, 7%disagree and 7%strong disagree. Table no. 3. 10 Shy out student diversity affect learning? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 9| 30%| SA| 13| 44%| N| 2| 7%| DA| 6| 20%| SDA| 0| 0%| 30% said agree, 44%said strong agree, 7%said neutral and 20%disagree. Table no. 3. 11 Can we suggest strategies for shy out students which help students for classroom discussion? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 11| 37%| SA| 11| 37%| N| 6| 20%| DA| 2| 7%| SDA| 0| 0%| 37% said agree, 37%said strong agree, 20%said neutral and 7%disagree. Table no. 3. 12 Can we help shy out students to set social development goal for discussion? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 11| 37%| SA| 14| 47%| N| 2| 7%| DA| 3| 10%| SDA| 0| 0%| 37% said agree, 47%said strong agree, 7%said neutral and 10%disagree. Table no. 3. 13 Can teacher s allow the students to speak for break the shyness? Options| Frequency| Percentage| A| 8| 27%| SA| 10| 34%| N| 3| 10%| DA| 7| 24%| SDA| 2| 7%| 27% said agree, 34%said strong agree, 10%said neutral, 24%disagree and 7% strong disagree. Chapter 4 4. 1 Procedure of the Study The researcher herself visited for data collection and personally met the student’s . The researcher briefed the students about the purpose of the research and the teachers identified shy out students, a careful observation was made by the researcher also and only those students were selected who were seemed to be really shy and do not participate in classroom discussion. 4. 2 Findings The data collected through questionnaires was analyzed through the research. The results were interpreted in the forms of tables. * When students were opinion the statement 47% students said they were agree group activities break the shy out of the student, 44% opinion strong agree and 10% opinion strong disagree. * 30% the opinion they are strongly agree that have shy out students discuss their weakness in classroom as a communicator,10 %neutral ,40% disagree and 20% strong disagree . * 40% opinion they are agree that confer with parents give opportunities for shy out student to increase their involvement in classroom discussion , 24%opinion strong agree, 10%opinion neutral and 27%disagree. * 30% opinion they are agree do shy students show sign of social anxiety, 27%opinion strong agree, 10% opinion neutral and 34%disagree. * 40% opinion they are agreeing that do not force the shy out students to prefer in front of the classmates, but encourage him to do? 27% opinion strong agrees, 27% opinion neutral and 7%disagree. * 14% students opinion agree do not make shy out students that feel rushed to answer quickly, 67% opinion strong agree and 20% opinion neutral * 30% students opinion they are agree students have courage to comfort their shyness need time to develop, 30% opinion strong agree, 10%  opinion neutral, 8%disagree and 4% strong disagree. * 24% student’s opinions they are agreeing that the environment which students raised can affect his or her shyness in classroom discussion, 60% opinion strong agree and 5%disagree. * 10% students opinion they are agree some students have problematically shy out in varying degree, 10% opinion strong agree, 67% opinion neutral , 7%disagree and 7%strong disagree. * 30% students opinion they are agree shy out students diversity affect learning , 44% opinion strong agree, 7% opinion neutral and 20%disagree. * 37% student’s opinion agrees can we suggest strategies for shy out which help students for classroom discussion? 37% opinion strong agrees, 20% opinion neutral and 7%disagree. * 37% students said opinion can we help shy out students to set social development goal for discussion, 47% opinion strong agree, 7% neutral and 10%disagree. * 27% students opinion agree that can teachers allow the students to speak for break the shyness, 34% strong agree, 10% neutral, 24%disagree and 7% strong disagree. 4. 3 Explanation Almost all students act shy at times, especially when encountering a new person or situation. Shy sensibly most students take time to figure out what to do (and not do! ) when presented with a novel situation. With time, most students start to feel comfortable in a new situation or with a person theyve recently met and, therefore, act more outgoing, relaxed, and ontaneous. Some students, however, warm up much more slowly than others. Student who is shy may not respond when spoken to by a teacher or classmate even after weeks of academy. Or they may say little, speak very softly, and avoid eye contact. These students may hover near other students day after day but never join the others in play. Shy students may look tense or distracted in institution as they worry about becoming the center of attention or doing something embarrassing. Teachers never see the students at home smiling, laughing, and chatting away with family members. * What is shyness? Almost all students act shy at times, especially when encountering a new person or situation. Quite sensibly most students take time to figure out what to do (and not do!) when presented with a novel situation. With time, most students start to feel comfortable in a new situation or with a person theyve recently met and, therefore, act more outgoing, relaxed, and ontaneous. Some students, however, warm up much more slowly than others. Student who is shy may not respond when spoken to by a teacher or classmate even after weeks of academy. Or they may say little, speak very softly, and avoid eye contact. These students may hover near other students day after day but never join the others in play. Shy students may look tense or distracted in institution as they worry about becoming the center of attention or doing something embarrassing. Teachers never see the students at home smiling, laughing, and chatting away with family members. * What are the signs of shyness in a young student? Shy students tend to show at least 3 or 4 of the following behaviors in preschool or primary school. Shy students tend to: 1. Produce little or no voluntary speech 2. Follow directions but dont respond verbally to them 3. Turn away when spoken to 4. Watch but dont join other students in fun activities. 5. Speak softly * What are the effects of shyness on students in classroom discussion? The unfortunate effects of being shy include nervousness, decreased development of close relationships, interference with learning, and reduced opportunities to practice and improve social skills. As a shy student reaches, peers tend to start thinking of the child as not normal. This can in turn have negative effects on the childs self-esteem. On the other hand, shy student tend to act out less than other students do, perhaps because they dont want to call attention to themselves by doing something wrong. Although some students outgrow shyness as they get older, others remain painfully shy their entire life. * Relationship of Shy out students with Self -Esteem Shy students are seen less friendly than others, maybe a bit standoffish, even cold in some circumstances. shy students probably even see themselves in a more negative than positive light. Because of this worry, their thoughts and strengths are limited to a very small circle of students; they are in fact only limited by their own thoughts and emotions. They constantly think that others are slighting them, insulting them, or attacking them in some way. The shy students can actually handicap themselves with negative thoughts and wind up using their shyness as a crutch and an excuse for not pursuing more social occasions, it becomes to socialize, make friends, and establish relationships, both personal and professional. It becomes a self- defeating behavior. This kind of self-defeating behavior leads to more and more avoidance of any or all social encounters, until they become frozen in fear and completely unable to function in normal social circumstances. They quite literally lose hope in their own ability to function normally in these circumstances, so they quit trying. if the children (adult) feel that there is a discrepancy between the way they are behaving and the way they would like to react, their self esteem is likely to be low. To avoid negative feeling, children may lower their expectations of themselves and accept a lower level of performance or social interaction than they are capable of, or may try to avoid further feeling of failure by withdrawing from the situation in which they feel that there self esteem to be threatened. 4. 4 Conclusion Teachers may be able to help shy students considerably by using strategies that are relatively easy to implement and well matched to the teachers basic role as a helpful instructor to students. These strategies include providing self-concept support, encouragement, and opportunities to develop confidence and comfort in the classroom to shy and inhibited students, as well as closer monitoring, improved nonverbal communication, environmental engineering, and instructive suggestions or demands for improved concentration designed to maintain the attention of students prone to shy out students. Most teachers seem to develop an intuitive understanding of some of the needs of shy students, but many could meet these needs more effectively by systematically applying the principles and strategies highlighted here. 4. 5 Suggestion of shy out students Suggestion one Assuming that you share a common Language with this student, the first step has to be to speak to him in his own language in order to ascertain what the problem is and if he is always shy. In other words is he shy when using his native language or does this shyness only occurs when he is trying to speak? Secondly, it would be very useful to spend some time talking to him about various aspects connected to his one-to-one classes and in particular how he would like to be taught and what his aims are. You could emphasize the value of trying things out in English and learning from mistakes rather than being afraid of them. You could also clarify your role and make sure that he understands that you are there to help and to give him constructive feedback on his English. Suggestion two We provide opportunities for the shy out students to develop debating skills. Provide best activities to break the shyness of the students. Suggestion three Teachers provide group work to make involvement of the students. They help and support the shy out students in classroom discussion and do not asked to him gave answer quickly. Suggestion four You could also use homework as the basis for speaking. If he has prepared a homework exercise (a grammar exercise or similar), go through it in the next class with him reading out the answers. It’s important that he gets used to hearing himself speaking this strange foreign language and feels comfortable with it. Suggestion five Another factor could be the dynamic in the classroom. Sitting next to the student rather than standing or sitting opposite can create a feeling of co-operation and may help the student to overcome his shyness. Writing on sheets of paper on the table rather than the whiteboard could also help as could the use of visual aids on the desk such as maps, photographs, magazine pictures and so on. All of these can help to shift the focus away from the student. The important thing here is for you to experiment and find the style and approach that best suits your student. 4. 6 Recommendations * The students should talk to parents, friends, a mentor or anybody they trust most and should confide and express what they feel. * The students should avoid doing so many things at the same time. Because this could lead them to confusion and frustration if nothing gets accomplished. They must stick on one thing that they are good at. * Parents should teach their children how to behave in a social situation. * Parents should try to be good role models. They must let their children see those making social contacts, expressing themselves and interacting with others. * Parents should help their children to feel themselves important, capable and adequate. Such feelings will enhance their self-esteem. * Teachers should avoid calling their students shy. If labeling occurs in the classroom, teachers should intervene. * Teachers should encourage shy students to participate actively in classroom activities 4. 7 SUMMARY Shy students participate less frequently in class, are less likely to volunteer contributions, and give shorter and less elaborate answers to questions. Differences between shy and less shy students extend to their performance on standardized tests of vocabulary. What is shyness in students? Almost all students act shy at times, especially when encountering a new person or situation. Quite sensibly most students take time to figure out what to do (and not do! ) when presented with a novel situation. With time, most students start to feel comfortable in a new situation or with a person theyve recently met and, therefore, act more outgoing, relaxed, and ontaneous. Some students, however, warm up much more slowly than others. * Causes of shy out students Some children seem naturally shy, while others may revert to being shy because they are scared, ashamed or simply conditioned by past experiences to do so. A lack of confidence can cause a child to become shy, especially if she has been given reason to doubt her abilities in the past. 1. Lost Discussion Skills Students who do not interact with others in the classroom miss opportunities to learn crucial interpersonal skills. Students miss opportunities to develop debating skills. 2. Lost Assertiveness Shy students may be less willing to mention when they are struggling with class room discussion, causing them to not receive the help they need. 3. Lost Opportunities When students do not have enough experiences, they miss many opportunities to learn. Students who are very shy may be distracted from classroom material because of fears of social interaction or being called on in class. 4. Students often get ignored Shy students often have difficulty with class grades, but that largely comes from lower levels of class participation and oral skills. Whether shyness is learned, cultural, or genetic, it can present problems for both students and instructors, most commonly in smaller classes in which participation is expected/encouraged. 5. Low Self-Efficacy. Shy students often develop low self-esteem and a lack of confidence, which reduces the chances that they will have the confidence to pursue challenges that give them learning opportunities. Shyness can also create an unfortunate cycle, as timid students do not develop effective communication skills. * Strategies to Overcome Shyness of students Following strategies to help the students to overcome their shyness. 1. Tell the students about times when you acted bashful 2. Explain to the children how they will benefit from acting outgoing Prevent labeling of the children as shy. 3. Expose the children to unfamiliar settings and people 4. Prompt the children to interact with others 5. Reward the children for outgoing behavior * Signs of shy out students 1. Produce little or no voluntary speech 2. Follow directions but dont respond verbally to them 3. Turn away when spoken to 4. Watch but dont join other students in fun activities 5. Make little or no eye contact * Teachers do to help shy out students 1. Put children in pairs or other small groups and lead them into an activity that requires interaction. 2. Prompt interaction between students. 3. Give shy students plenty of time to respond to questions or to speak to the class. 4. Show empathy and understanding. 5. Show warmth. 6. Reward outgoing behavior. * Effects of student’s shyness on classroom discussion Effects of being shy include: 1. Nervousness in discussion. 2. Decreased development of close relationships. 3. Interference with learning. 4. Reduced opportunities to practice in classroom discussion. 5. Improve social skills. References Byrnes, A, D. (1984). Forgotten children in classrooms: Development and Characteristics. The elementary school journal, Vol. 84, No. 3 [Online] Available: http:

Sunday, July 21, 2019

Consequences Of Childbearing For Teenagers Social Work Essay

Consequences Of Childbearing For Teenagers Social Work Essay Introduction Public concern over adolescent sexual health and the resolutions to these concerns has over the past three decades generated political debate and academic inquiry the world over. At the core of adolescent sexual health is the issue of teenage pregnancy. South Africa has not been spared from the challenges teenage pregnancy presents. Inquiry into teenage pregnancy in South Africa began in the 1980s. In an effort to control the prevalence of teenage pregnancy, academics and policy makers alike have developed various strategies and policies targeting teenagers. Yet three decades later, teenage pregnancy still remains a topical issue in South Africa. About 16 million adolescent girls between 15 and 19 years give birth each year worldwide, and 80% of these girls are found in developing countries (World Health Organisation, 2010). In South Africa, 40% of all births involve girls under the age of 19 years, and 35% of these teenagers, give birth before reaching the age of 19 years (Medical Research Council, 2009).According to the Department of Basic Education (2009), in South Africa, a total of 45,000 teenagers were pregnant in 2008, while the number increased to 49,000 in 2009. This chapter examines literature on teenage pregnancy, and will assist in providing rationale and context for this study. This literature review will deviate from the traditional Knowledge, Attitude and Perception (KAP) literature studies that isolate individuals from social, cultural and economic contexts that influences and shape their lives. The weakness of KAP studies is that they do not acknowledge the effect of cultural, economic and societal factors on human behavior. Jewkes et al. (2001) add that KAP studies on teenage pregnancy in South Africa have mainly been descriptive and do not make an effort to account for the gap between knowledge, attitude and perception. In effort to account for these discrepancies, and come up with gaps in teenage pregnancy research, this literature review has been divided into the following two sections (i) the consequences of child bearing on teenagers, and (ii) factors contributing to teenage pregnancy. CONSEQUENCES OF CHILDBEARING FOR TEENAGERS The challenge of unplanned and unwanted pregnancy for a teenager has long-term consequences, not only for the mother, but for society as a whole, with far-reaching implications for economic and social development. Mpanza (2010:66) puts forward that teenagers who drop out of school due to pregnancy never do well after they return from childbirth, this can be attributed to divided loyalties between taking care of the child and continuation of school. Because of its usually unwanted and unplanned nature, teenage pregnancy always poses a health and social risk, a point further supported by Edgardh (2000), Genius and Genius (2004), Santelli (2000), and Petiffor et al. (2004). These studies confirm that early sexual initiation is a predictor of risky sexual behaviour and is more likely to be non-consensual, unprotected and to be subsequently regretted, resulting in unplanned and unwanted pregnancy. While the consequences of teenage pregnancy are varied, it is important to acknowledge that teenage pregnancy is a result of a complex set of varied, but interrelated factors. An understanding of these factors will enable a better understanding of the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of teenagers towards teenage pregnancy. Disruption of school Teenage pregnancy has the potential of limiting a learners future career prospects. For the pregnant learner, impending motherhood forces her to drop out of school as she is unable to continue studying (Macleod Tracey, 2009). Learners are forced to leave school when their pregnancy has progressed as schools are considerate of their state (Bhana Swartz, 2009). The Department of Educations (DoE) 2007 Measures for the Prevention and Management of Learner Pregnancy makes it possible for educators to request learners take a leave of absence for up to two years (Macleod Tracey, 2009:15). Even with legislation in place, pregnant teenagers are sent away from school earlier than they should (ibid). This is probably due to the perception that pregnant learners are a bad influence to other learners. Vagueness and ambiguity of the education guideline presents a challenge to the educators who are left to interpret it at their discretion. For instance, the document puts the responsibility of parenting firmly on the learner, and states that a period of two years may be necessary for this purpose. No learner shall be should be re-admitted in the same year that they left school due to pregnancy (DoE, 2007:5), educators are left to decide how long the learner stays away from school. This ruling may be in conflict with the desires of the young mother who may have sufficient support at home, which enables her to return to school earlier than expected (Bhana Swartz, 2009). Young fathers are also affected by pregnancy, albeit differently. It has been reported that impending fatherhood, cultural and societal expectations may force the young father to leave school and seek employment. This is conditional as it depends on whether the boy accepts responsibility or not (Shefer Morrell, 2012; Bhana Swartz, 2009). However, Macleod and Tracey (2009) argue that the level of disruption caused by pregnancy on learners is debatable as learners drop out of school for various reasons of which teenage pregnancy is one. Preston-Whyte  and Zondi (1992) concur with this assertion. Manzinis (2001) study of teenage pregnancy in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) indicates that more than 20.6% of pregnant teenagers had already dropped out of school before falling pregnant. Apart from falling pregnant, teenagers may leave school due to frustrations associated with the inexperience of teachers, who often are required to teach in areas that are not their expertise, and a lack of relevance of the curriculum and teaching materials (Human Science Research Council, 2007). Among factors within the home that led to drop-out, learners in this study cited the absence of parents at home, financial difficulties and the need to care for siblings or sick family member. Strassburg et al. (2010) and Fleisch et al. (2010) concur with the 2007 HRSC findings and assert that the reasons teenagers drop out of school are a combination of inter-related factors. As such, Fleisch et al. (2010) note that poverty alone cannot best explain why teenagers drop out of school, because there are other factors such as academic ability of the teenager, teacher-pupil relationship, support from home and school, alcohol and drug abuse and family structure that contribute to school dropout. Lloyd and Mensch (1995:85) summarise the various reasons why teenagers may drop out of school by stating that, Rather than pregnancy causing girls to drop out, the lack of social and economic opportunities for girls and women and the domestic demands placed on them, coupled with the gender inequities of the education system, may result in unsatisfactory school experiences, poor academic performance, and acquiescence in or endorsement of early motherhood. However, pregnancy ranks among the top contributors to school dropout for girls in South Africa (HRSC, 2009). While pregnancy may not be the reason for leaving school, child care is a reason for not returning to school. Manzini (2001) indicates that young mothers, who have to take care of their babies, and find it difficult to juggle student life and being a mother, ultimately drop out. Various reasons for not returning to school have been explored, among them being a lack of a support structure, financial challenges and access to a Child Support Grant (CSG). Research in South Africa indicates that teenagers who do not have support from their families and struggle financially once the baby is born, usually dropout of school so as to provide for the baby and themselves (Bhana Swartz, 2009). On the other hand, studies in Brazil and Guatemala indicate that girls are forced to look for jobs to supplement family income and take care of the new family member (Hallman et al., 2005). Young mothers who have support structures in the form of parents and grandparents have an opportunity of returning to school (Grant Hallman, 2006). Matthews et al. (2008) concur and maintain that the presence of an older female in the family enables learners to return to school, while the absence of the same forces them to look for alternative ways of making a living. This is the same with teenage fathers who have accepted responsibility and have family that is prepared to support the child (Bhana Swartz, 2009). The return to school in South Africa is motivated by a desire for a better life. Anecdotal evidence suggests that parents of African teenage mothers usually send the teenager back to school, since she has a higher chance of fetching high bride price in the event that she gets married. In the African belief system, an educated woman is bound to fetch a higher price than that of an uneducated one (Macleod, 2009; Mkwananzi, 2011; Bhana, Swartz Morrell, 2012). Kaufman, de Wet and Stadler (2000) concur, adding that the fact that the teenager has proven her fertility actually increases her chances of marriage in future. Interestingly, teenagers in Hlabanganas 2012 study in Soweto (South Africa) indicated that falling pregnant before marriage decreases the bride price, as prospective grooms consider the teenage mothers as used goods. Reasons for returning to school after pregnancy may vary for both sexes, but the important part is that the teenager is back in school. Clearly the effects of teenage pregnancy on the teenager vary for the young parents, the difference may lie in the financial circumstances of the teenagers family and on the part of the young father whether or not he accepts responsibility of the pregnancy. The consequences of dropping out of school for teenage girls due to pregnancy cannot be overestimated, especially in a continent where the adage when you educate a woman , you educate a nation holds true (Hubbard, 2009: 223). The main thrust of the study is to understand why teenagers continue falling pregnant in the face of efforts by the South African government in trying to manage teenage pregnancy. In an effort to control and manage teenage pregnancy, the government has provided youth-friendly clinics, life skills programmes in schools and is currently on a much opposed drive to supply condoms in schools. Opposition for distributing condoms in schools comes from parents who fear that by distributing condoms in schools, teenage rs are given indirect permission to indulge in sexual activities. In light of the efforts made by the South African government and a decade of spending on teenage pregnancy management, figures still indicate that teenage pregnancy rates are on the increase nationwide. Disruption of school, as a consequence of teenage pregnancy merits scrutiny in this study, as it will enable an understanding of their perceived effect of teenage pregnancy on young girls who are pregnant. health risks Research on health risks associated with early childbirth in teenagers is mainly divided into two main camps. One camp argues that teenagers are at risk of health problems due to their socio-economic status. The other camp, which is scientific, argues that age at first childbirth puts young women at risk of health problems as she is not mature enough to push the baby, and this proves fatal to both mother and child. Some young mothers who have assisted births end up having obstetric complications such as hemorrhaging and damage to the womb. Macleod (2009) identifies paucity of research in South Africa in terms of health risks associated with early childbirth. Age at first child birth contributes to a range of complications, including pregnancy-induced hypertension, anemia, obstructed and prolonged labour, low birth weight, preterm labour and delivery, perinatal and infant mortality, and maternal mortality (WHO, 2007). These complications are usually associated with the physical immaturity of teenagers, an assertion that Cameron (1996) supports and adds that limited access to health care services is another contributing factor to the range of complications. He suggests that complications become more pronounced when the teenager decides to terminate pregnancy (Cameroon, 1996:83). In South Africa, the Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act (No. 92 of 1996) allows minors under the age of 18 years to terminate a pregnancy without the consent of either parents or guardians. Manzini (2001) suggests that due to health personnel attitudes, teenagers are forced to have unsafe abortions, which may lead to death. Lack of support structure before and after termination maybe the reason for teenagers resorting to self-administered terminations and this usually leads to irreversible damage to the womb or even death (Petiffor et al., 2005). Sexually active young fathers face different health challenges from those of the young mother and child. Bhana and Swartz (2009) indicate that young fathers in Cape Town (South Africa), often have multiple and concurrent partners (MCP), and this puts them at great risk of contracting and spreading HIV. However, they are quick to mention that impending fatherhood for those that have accepted responsibility is cause for behaviour change. MCPs are one of the main drivers of the spread of HIV (Halperin Epstein, 2007). Young men put themselves at risk by practicing unprotected sex with multiple partners who themselves may be part of a potentially sexual network. Geronimus and Sanders (1992) observe that young African American women who live in conditions of poverty are more prone to problems as they are unable to access pre- and post-natal care. They note that this is different for white teenage mothers who are the bulk of teenage mothers in America. Geronimus and Sanders (1992) suggest that this may be due to the differences in economic status of the teenagers. Macleod (1999) points out that despite their socio-economic status, teenage mothers hardly ever access pre- and post-natal services. This may be due to the stigma associated with teenage pregnancy, and may also be due to the attitudes of service providers. While studies may site negative attitudes of staff towards teenagers (Wood Jewkes, 2003), Ehlers (2003) paints a more positive picture, arguing that youth-friendly services initiated by South Africas Department of Health (DoH) have made great strides in addressing the stigma attached to adolescent sexuality. The Child Support Grant (CSG) Social grants or assistance can best be described as non-contributory cash transfer programmes set up by the government for the under privileged, aged or vulnerable (Grosh et al., 2008). Social grants are very important as they assist in alleviating poverty, reducing the level of vulnerability of vulnerable groups in society and providing social insurance to the vulnerable groups in society (Neves et al., 2009). The CSG was first introduced in South Africa in April 1998 as a poverty alleviation strategy for the poorest children (Parliamentary Liaison Office, 2007). Initially restricted to children under the age of seven years, it was later extended to include 14 year olds in 2003. According to Hall (2011), the CSG pay-out in 2011 was R275 per month per child. A lot of debate surrounds the CSG and teenage pregnancy in South Africa with the media fuelling the opinion that teenagers fall pregnant to access the CSG. Popular opinion states that the CSG has led to a perverse incentive for teenagers to conceive and go on to spend the money on personal goods (Macleod, 2006). In response to the media outcry, the Department of Social Development (DSD) commissioned research into the matter in 2006. The research concluded that there was no direct relationship between CSG and teenage pregnancy (Kesho Consulting, 2006). Other research by Makiwane and Udjo (2006) concluded that there is no evidence that the CSG leads to an increase in welfare dependency in South Africa. Furthermore, during the period in which the CSG has been offered, rates of termination of pregnancy have increased (Macleod, 2009). In 1998, when the CSG was introduced, abortion rates were at 4.1%, a decade later abortion rates were at their all-time high of 8.1 %, and in 2011 they were at 6.3%. Macleod (2009) suggests that the high rate of abortion amongst teenagers, in the face of the CSG, is evidence that there is no relationship between the CSG and teenage pregnancy. Matsidiso Nehemia Naong (2011) concurs with research that indicates that there is no link between the CSG and teenage pregnancy. In her study of three of South Africas provinces (Free State, Mpumalanga and Eastern Cape), Naongs sample of 302 school principals and 225 Grade 12 learners indicated that there was no relationship between the CSG and teenage pregnancy. Instead, the study concluded that poverty, peer pressure and substance abuse contributed to teenage pregnancy. Naong concludes that teenage pregnancy and CSG are divorced and any influence between the two is negligible. Interestingly enough, anecdotal evidence suggests that more and more teenage girls are falling pregnant in an effort to access the CSG so as to complement household earning or in some instances the CSG is the main source of income. In such cases teenage pregnancy ceases to be unplanned and becomes planned and unwanted. In a 2005 study of CSG use in KZN, Case, Hosegood and Lund (2005) showed that 12.1% of pregnant teenagers who had conceived cited the CSG as the reason. Tyali (2012) in his study of HIV and AIDS communication in Platfontein (South Africa) found that teenagers were deliberately falling pregnant so as to access the CSG, while others wanted to access the HIV and AIDS grant. Marsh and Kaus (2010) study of teenagers perceptions and understanding of teenage pregnancy, sexuality and abortion concurs with Tyalis (2012) conclusion that teenagers deliberately fall pregnant to access the CSG. Using a population sample of 35 teenagers (24 girls and 11 boys), Marsh and Kau (2010) discovered that the CSG was perceived as means of increasing household income, by having a baby, the teenager then contributes towards the household income through access of the CSG. Interestingly, Marsh and Kaus research population indicated that the influence or pressure to bear children in order to access the CSG came from family. On the other hand other teenagers viewed the CSG as a way of increasing the pocket money for clothes and cell phones. On the other hand, the CSG has been credited with enabling teenager mothers to return to school. The CSG is associated with an increase in school attendance and improved child health and nutrition. Thus, the grant can be associated with an improvement in the lives of children whose caregivers receive the CSG on their behalf (Macleod, 2009:24). It will be interesting to find out how teenagers perceive the relationship between the CSG and teenage pregnancy. Their attitudes regarding the grant will also be important in the formulation of a communication intervention, and eventually contribute towards efforts to manage teenage pregnancy rates. CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO TEENAGE PREGNANCY The present study does not look at pregnant teenagers knowledge, attitudes and perceptions towards teenage pregnancy; instead it focuses on non-pregnant teenagers knowledge attitudes and perceptions towards teenage pregnancy. Having said that, contributing factors to teenage pregnancy merit exploration as these factors will shed light on knowledge, attitudes and perceptions towards teenage pregnancy. Understanding how teenagers make meaning of teenage pregnancy through their knowledge, attitudes and skills is important in particular if this understanding is viewed through the contributory factors to teenage pregnancy. Contributing factors to teenage pregnancy are important for this study as they will put the study in context and enable the researcher not to take the revisionist and reductionist approach towards teenage pregnancy. The reductionist and revisionist approaches to teenage pregnancy ignore other non-sexual factors that contribute to teenage pregnancy. The following contributing factors were apparent in this review of the literature and will be dealt with in the following sections: Family Relations Family is an important unit for socialisation as it enables the sharing of beliefs and ideals that lead to societal norms. Research indicates that family relations are an important aspect in teenage pregnancy rates. Eaton (2003) and Bhana (2004) found that teenagers with single parents were prone to risky sexual behaviour, and pregnancy compared to those with both parents. This may be attributed to issues to do with shared control and responsibility of both parents, whereas in single family parents control is vested in one parent. Family form becomes a protective condition to young people. Muchuruza (2000) concurs and puts forward that in Tanzania teenagers coming from single parent families have risky sexual behaviour and are more likely to become young parents. Where the single parent struggles to provide for the girl child, the girl is at greater risk of pregnancy as she has to look for means of survival and usually this is achieved through intergenerational relationships. The maj or reason why teenagers engage in intergenerational relationships with older men and women is that they see them as providers of social status symbols such as flashy cell phones and jewellery, while at the same time taking care of their basic needs. Such relationships jeopardize the health of the two people involved as the teenager is unable to negotiate for safe sex because of fear of losing their economic goals (Leclerc-Madlala, 2008). Most documented research on intergenerational relationships is between girls and sugar daddies. These sugar daddies feel that such relationships are transactional hence there is no need for them to use protection (ibid). Such relationships leave the teenager vulnerable to HIV and AIDS, pregnancy, Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) and to sexual manipulation. Bhanas (2004) Cape Town (South Africa) study found that 66% of the teenagers reported that family norms enabled them to have people to advise them on how to live a constructive life, while 55% said that availability of family members acted as source of control for their sexual behaviour. This is evidence that family relations play an important part in the behaviour of teenagers and most importantly their sexual behaviour. The presence of a responsible biological father encourages girls to delay their sexual debut and instils in boys a sense of sexual responsibility. Blum and Mmari (2005) point out that the presence of a male figure in a household and their attitude to sexual behaviour plays an important part in influencing teenagers sexual behaviour. They found that girls with father figures who were against premarital sex were less likely to engage in premarital sex and experience unplanned pregnancy, compared to those with father figures who had sexually permissive attitudes and those without fathers. In the same context, Lovings (1993) investigation into the connection between family relationships and teenage pregnancy in Durban (South Africa), established that warm relationships between fathers and their daughters played an important role in delaying young girls sexual initiation. Mfono (2008) holds the view that teenage girls whose mothers were teenage mothers themselves have a greater chance of being teenage mothers. Arai (2008) observed that in Britain and America, the daughter of a teenage mother is one and a half more likely to become a teenage mother herself than the daughter of an older mother. This, according to Hlabangana (2012) is due to the fact that these teenagers come from communities where it is normal to be a teenage mother, since almost everyone has been or is a teenage mother. The HRSCs 2008 study of perceptions towards teenage pregnancy in Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban (South Africa) coincides with Hlabanganas assertion that teenage pregnancy has been normalised. According to the respondents of the HRSC study, non-pregnant teenagers are viewed as the other, and are asked when they too will be pregnant. Such attitudes make teenage pregnancy a way of life, and teenagers themselves view teenage pregnancy as a reality that forms a part of e veryday life rather than an alien occurrence (HRSC, 2008). This cycle self-perpetuates from one generation to another until it becomes acceptable and normal for teenagers to fall pregnant. The intergenerational cycle is a result of a lack of upward mobility; upward mobility is an individuals ability to rise above their current social or economic position (Hlabangana, 2012). Arai (2008) considers this low expectation on the part of teenagers, as one of the reasons that perpetuates the intergenerational cycle of teenage pregnancy. This she attributes to structural factors in deprived communities such as schools that fail to give teenagers a reason to feel entitled to anything. Knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of teenagers towards teenage pregnancy may be rooted in the lack of upward mobility that Arai refers to. Arai (2008) notes that in Britain, the low expectation argument for teenage pregnancy is a powerful one as evidenced by many British researchers (Garlick et al., 1993; Rosato, 1999; Selman, 1998; Smith, 1993; Wilson, 1991). She puts forward that in Britain, teenage pregnancy is very high amongst teenagers who do not have family support, come from broken homes, are raised by single parents, have difficulty with school and who come from socially disadvantaged backgrounds. According to Arai (2008), teenagers from such backgrounds have access to contraception and sexual health information, but display a deficiency in their knowledge of sexual health, proper contraceptive use, are shy to engage in sexual health communication and are wary to access services for sexual health. In a 1999 study in Northumberland, Britain, it was discovered that teenage parents had low educational achievement and low expectations of their future prior to their parenthood Arai (2009). She notes that these teenagers went on to have low paying jobs where they had to work long hours. In another Scottish study, (Smith,1993 in Arai, 2009) observed that teenagers from deprived backgrounds were six times likely to fall pregnant and then abort than their counter parts from well to do areas. These studies, validate Arai (2009) and Hlabanganas (2009) notion of upward mobility and entitlement for more on the part of the teenagers. Interestingly, Rutenberg et al. (2003:5) in their study of attitudes towards HIV and AIDS and teenage pregnancy in KZN (South Africa) discovered that for some adolescents, increasing opportunities and aspirations for education and employment, in addition to the perceived risk of HIV and pregnancy, results in many adolescents not wanting an early pregnancy. Rutenberg et al.s study, validates Arais (2008) and Hlabanganas (2009) assertion that teenagers with a low sense of upward mobility are most likely to find themselves as teenage parents while those with a high level of upward mobility are most likely to prevent themselves from early parenthood. This study will seek to unearth these varying dynamics in an effort to understand teenagers attitudes towards other teenagers who fall pregnant. economic status Pregnancies among teenagers are related to social problems, and this is predominant in developing countries and in particular poverty stricken communities. Risky sexual behaviours among teenagers are more likely to occur in poor families and those with single families. Lack of resources forces girls to become sexually involved in an effort to get material gains (Jewkes, Morrell Christofides, 2009). Hallman (2004) found that in South Africa low income families contributed to risky sexual behaviour among young people in both rural and urban areas. The study argues that low income accounts for girls decision to engage in risky sexual behaviour in trying to make ends meet. Macleod (2009) and Manzini (2009) concur with Hallman, and further add that young people from low economic statuses are most likely not to use condoms. This is attributed to lack of access to health services, reproductive health information and proper support structures from other social institutions. Teenagers who find themselves in intergenerational relationships find themselves unable to negotiate safe sex practices in fear of jeopardising their economic goals (Panday et al., 2009; Leclerc-Madlala, 2008). Many young women not only engage in risky sexual activities to meet their basic needs such as money, food and clothing, but also to satisfy wants such as expensive cell phones, high-class jewellery and rides in luxury cars (Hunter, 2002; Leclerc-Madlala, 2004). Chances of teenage pregnancy become high when the teenager comes from a home without adult supervision and most likely poor economic standing. Mfono (2003) confirms these arguments stating that teenagers are at high risk of pregnancy if they come from financially disadvantaged backgrounds, or if they succumb to peer pressure to engage in sexual activities for economic gain. On the other hand, teenage girls reject the transactional sex talk and state that they are able to make do with what is available without having to engage in intergenerational and transactional relationships with older partners. Sathiparsad and Taylors (2011) study of 335 girls and boys in eThekwini Secondary Schools in Durban (South Africa) revealed that girls view themselves as independent and rational thinkers. These girls suggested that they do not think that sex is synonymous with love, and assert their power as individuals by their ability to say no to unprotected sex. This is indicative of girls resisting manipulation and normative submission (ibid). For the purposes of this study, it will be interesting to find out how teenagers perceive economic status as a contributing factor to teenage pregnancy. Gender Dynamics The South African DoHs Policy Guidelines for Youth and Adolescent Health (2001) locates gender considerations as fundamental to the health of young people. The policy guidelines identify sexual health and sexual exploitation, sexual abuse, gender-based violence, coercive sex and gang rapes as areas of concern that put young women in particular at risk of HIV and AIDS and teenage pregnancy. Dunkle et al. (2004) in their study of young women attending ante-natal clinics in Soweto (South Africa) discovered that over half of the women aged between 15 and 30 years had been exposed to sexual violence. Another survey, conducted by the Planned Parenthood Association of South Africa (PPASA) in six of South Africas provinces, found that 20% of girls reported forced sexual encounters or were sexually assaulted (PPASA, 2003). Similarly, Vundule et al. (2001) found that 33% of girls in South Africa have their first intercourse as a result of force, including rape. Where there is unequal power distribution and lack of negotiation skills, pregnancy ceases to be a matter of choice. Sexual violence alters the power relations in any relationship, and in most cases women are vulnerable and unable to negotiate safe sex. Teenagers may avoid negotiating contraceptive usage, in particular condoms, for fear not only of violent reactions, but also of emotional rejection, of being labelled unfaithful or HIV positive (Wood, Maforah Jewkes, 1998). Furthermore, women attempting to use other invisible contraceptive methods, such as the injection, may be accused by their partners of causing infertility, disabled babies and vaginal