Helping out Older People who do not have Children Essay

Helping out Older People who do not have Children - Essay Example These old people need a lot of support and giving them the support makes them happy and they get to enjoy life to the full just like they used to enjoy when they were young. Doing this work brings a lot of joy and memories into their world, and satisfaction and happiness in mine. Â  When people grow old the need for long-term care certainly grows. The longer they (old people) live, the more likely they fall prey to chronic diseases. This works gives me the opportunity and honor to help the needy in one way or another and ensuring that they do not lack anything in their lives that I can afford to give especially company. Â  Watching old people struggle to make ends meet hence making out a living in the cruel world made me volunteer into helping them. Some of these old people had children who died and others had no chance of having any more of them. Helping the old people feels great as they are a bunch of blessings to many. Being an old person who does not have children brings a lot of happiness to them as they take you to be as their own child. They need constant care because many people have neglected them and do not want to be associated with them. They are either left on their own or thrown away in the streets. This leaves them in a bad situation and many of them if they fail to get the care they die due to stress or chronic diseases. Â  The benefits of helping out the old people are many. The benefits are to the caregiver and the person who is being taken care of.

The Port Hedland case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Port Hedland case study - Essay Example Finally the author justifies her choice of strategies, the limitations and methods that can be used to overcome the limitations. Community planning and development is an essential component of all developed and developing economies. There are many different reasons for community planning and development to take center stage in any local government initiative. The reason for this is because unless communities are planned and developed effectively the individuals living and working in those communities would suffer from various different hardships. These hardships would depend on the scale and the inadequacy of the different amenities that have been provided by the communities. The more amenities that are provided by a community the more that community will thrive and therefore effective community planning and development is an essential. A community can be loosely defined as a group of individuals living in a common marked off location. These individuals will form separate family and living units, but still they will be interdependent on each other and may even contribute to one another's well being through social networks and through products and services that the manufacture, sell and provide. For instance any small village or part of a village can be considered as a community unit. As it will consist of individuals of different age groups and from different parts of society fulfilling different roles whether and contributing in one way or another to the group (Bhattacharyya, 2004). Amongst those who contribute will also be those who do not and can be detrimental to the community unit. Reasons for community development and planning to be necessary As stated above the more amenities a community has the better it is for the living standards of those living in the community. For instance if the community has adequate public health facilities and educational facilities for children, that would help the community to be healthy and productive, which benefits the entire community through its economic development. When there is adequate educational facilities for the children that ensure that the future of the community, which is in the hands of the future generation will be very secure. From the stand point of a nation, better planned the communities throughout the nation are - the more healthier, more educated and the more productive the citizens would be in the long term, which in turn will benefit the entire nation. The Issues of inadequate community development and planning Since the report has looked at the necessity for appropriate community development and planning, in this section of the report the author will focus her attention on the issues that can arise from inadequate community development and planning. Social inequality amongst the individuals, Economic inequalities and Political inequalities are some of the disadvantages that have to be faced by a nation that does not pay adequate attention to the proper development and planning of its communities (Kellogg, 2002) Therefore in this section the author will focus on those three areas and the type of inequalities that can arise from the inadequate amenities being provided to the communities. Social Inequality When amenities like adequate public h

ENVS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

ENVS - Essay Example Hayes, astrazine cause development of ovaries in male frogs. One advantage of animal testing is that it helps researchers to discover treatments for both animals and humans. One of the disadvantages of animal testing is that it can be misleading since animals may react to drugs in different ways as humans. In addition, animal testing leads to mistreatment of animals. Testing on animals is justified because it has helped researchers to discover many effective treatments. Additionally, animals should be used because their lives have less value compared to humans. Testing upon animals can give accurate results because the bodies of most animals used for tests function like humans. Scientists have proved that lab animals and humans do not have big difference. In addition, most of the drugs used today were discovered through animals testing. For instance, antibiotics and HIV drugs used by humans today gave positive results when tested on animals. Other methods of testing are less effective compared to animal testing. In addition, surgery and organ transplant techniques used on humans today were acquired through animals testing. Tyrone says that rats are the most relevant animals used to simulate humans in laboratories. Humans cannot be used in labs tests because it will be unethical to expose to humans chemicals during lab tests. According to him, the use of rats produces accurate results because rats have regular reproduction, genetic purity and many resemblances to human biology (Hayes). If I were a farmer, would not use atrazine to increase my crop yield. This is because the herbicide will only increase yields for a short period since it causes land degradation. Additionally, it will negatively affect my health. Research outcomes show that it causes obesity and cell mutation. Additional ways of increasing crop yield apart from using chemicals encompass organic farming. In organic farming, one uses decomposed animal products or plants to fertilize

Two Hole Paper Punch Engineering Essay

Two Hole Paper Punch Engineering Essay The product I have chosen to manufacture is the two-hole paper punch. This product is one which is widely used in homes, schools and businesses all over the world for the purpose of punching holes in paper to allow for attaching multiple sheets together in an organised fashion. Such examples of devices used in conjunction with the two-hole punch include the ring binder folder and treasury tags. Component Parts On close inspection of existing two-hole punch products similar to the one in Fig.1 it can be observed that there exists six fundamental component parts to the piece. Some of these components are used in matching pairs and for this reason they can be considered as one single part in regards to the manufacturing of the product. Therefore the component parts can be categorised in four groups as follows: Base Plate ( To which everything is attached) Lever Handel ( The whole mechanism works from the behaviour of this part) Punchers ( Creates the holes in the paper) Springs ( Resets the mechanism for next use) Possible Materials There are countless materials which could be used to make the components of this product but the question is which ones are cost effective and also offer good quality. At this point I am considering using Perspex for the lever handle and Aluminium for the base plate. Stronger materials will be needed for the puncher heads to ensure a lasting sharpness over repeated use. Stainless steel could be a possibility in this case. And the springs will need to be strong also for the same reasons of repeated use so I would consider using some other variation of steel here too. Perspex The material we now know as Perspex began life, when the first acrylic acid was produced, in 1843. Methacrylic acid was formulated in 1865 and the reaction between methacrylic acid and methanolresults in the coumpound called metyl methacylate. In 1877 Two German chemists discovered the polymerization process that turns methyl methacrylate into polymethyl methacrylate. In 1933 another German chemist named Otto Rohmpatented and registered the name PLEXIGLAS. Then in 1936 the first commercially viable production of acrylic glass began. During World War II acrylic glass was used for submarine periscopes, and windshields, canopies, and gun turrets for airplanes. From a chemical point of view it is the polymer of methyl methacrylate that is sold under the trade names of Plexiglas or Perspex. Perspex is frequently used as a light or shatter-resistant alternative to glass. It is often favoured because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost. However when loaded it behaves in a brittlemanner and this is especially the case when subjected to an impact force. Also when compared to glass it is more prone to scratching. Aluminium Aluminium is a silvery-white andductilemember of theboron groupofmetals. It has the symbolAl and itsatomic numberis 13. Also it is not soluble in water. Aluminium is themost abundant metalin theEarthscrust, and the third most abundant element therein, next to oxygenand silicon. It makes up approximately 8% of the Earths solid surface by weight. Aluminium is too reactive chemically to occur as a free metal naturally. Instead, it is found combined in over 270diverseminerals.The chief resource of aluminium isbauxiteore. Aluminium is remarkable for its ability to resistcorrosiondue to the phenomenon ofpassivationand the metals low density. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight,malleablemetalwith visual appearance ranging from silvery to dull grey which depends on the surface texture. Aluminium is non-magnetic and non-sparking. It is also insoluble in alcohol, though in certain forms it can be soluble in water. Theyield strengthof pure aluminium is 7-11MPa, while aluminium alloyshave yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.Aluminium has about one-third the densityandstiffnessofsteel. It isductile, and easilymachined,cast,drawnandextruded. Corrosionresistance can be excellent due to a thin surface layer ofaluminium oxidethat forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing furtheroxidation. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due togalvanicreactions with alloyedcopper.This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced when many aqueous salts are present, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. Aluminium atoms are arranged in aface-centred cubic(fcc) structure. Stainless Steel Inmetallurgystainless steel, also acknowledged asinox steelorinoxfrom French inoxidable, is defined as asteelalloywith a minimum of 10.5or 11% chromiumcontent by mass.Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as regular steel (itstains less, but it is not stain-proof).It is also calledcorrosion-resistant steelorCRESwhen the alloy type and grade are not detailed. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment to which the material will be exposed to in its lifetime. Stainless steel is used where the properties of steel, and resistance to corrosion are both required. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Carbon steel rusts when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide. Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a passive film of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface corrosion and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metals internal structure. Carbon Steel Carbon steel, also calledplain carbon steel, issteelwhere the mainalloyingconstituent iscarbon. Carbon steel is defined as steel that has no minimum carbon content specified. The term carbon steel may also be used in reference to steel which is notstainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. Steel with a low carbon content has properties similar to iron. As the carbon content rises, the metal becomes harder and stronger but lessductileand more difficult toweld. In general, higher carbon content lowers the melting point and its temperature resistance. Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon atoms fit into theinterstitialcrystallinelatticesites of thebody-centered cubic(BCC) arrangement of the iron atoms. The interstitial carbon reduces the mobility ofdislocations, which in turn has a hardening effect on the iron. To get dislocations to move, a high enough stress level must be applied in order for the dislocations to break away. This is because the interstitial carbon atoms cause some of the iron BCC lattice cells to distort. Mild and low carbon steel Mild steel is the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.05-0.15% carbonand mild steel contains 0.16-0.29%carbon, therefore it is neither brittle norductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface hardness can be increased throughcarburizing. It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example asstructural steel. The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85g/cm3(0.284lb/in3)and theYoungs modulusis 210,000MPa (30,000,000psi). Background Research Production Process The Objective of this section is to define the materials and examine the possible production processes for each of my four component parts. There is always more than one way to carry out a job and yet still obtain a successful result. However some methods are more cost effective than others. I wish to present multiple solutions to manufacturing each of my parts and from there choose the best balance of quality, time and economy. Base Plate Aluminium Casting The first production process option to be examined is the idea of the multiple-use-mold casting process In the permanent-mold casting process a re usable mold is machined from grey cast-iron, steel, graphite or other such material. The mold is first pre-heated, and molten metal is poured in under the action of gravity alone. After solidification, the mold is opened and, the product is removed. The mold is then reclosed and another casting is poured. Aluminium is frequently cast by this process. There are numerous advantages for this process. The mold is reusable. A good surface finish is obtained provided the mold is in good condition. Dimensional accuracy can usually be held within 0.13-.25 mm. By selectively heating or cooling various parts of the mold, or by varing the thickness of the mold wall, directional solidification can be promoted so as to produce sound, defect-free castings with the desired mechanical properties. However there are some drawbacks to this process too. The mold life depends upon a number of factors: The allow being cast. The higher the melting point, the shorter the mold life. The mold material. Grey cast iron has about the best resistance to thermal fatigue and also machines easily. Thus it is used most frequently for permanent molds. The pouring temperature. Higher pouring temperatures reduce mold life, increase shrinkage problems, and induce longer cycle times. Mold temperature. If the temperature is too low, mis runs are produced, and high temperature differences form in the mold. If the temperature is too high, excessive cycle times result, and mold erosion is aggravated. Mold complexity is often restricted because the rigid cavity has no collapsibility to compensate for the shrinkage of the casting. As a best alternative, it is common practice to open the mold and remove the casting immediately after solidification, thereby preventing any tearing that may occur on subsequent cooling-down. Permanent molds are usually headed at the beginning of a run and are then maintained at a fairly uniform temperature as a means of controlling the cooling rate of the metal being cast. Since the mold rises in temperature as a casting is poured and sufficient time is permitted for solidification, it may be necessary to provide a cool-down delay before another casting is poured. Refractory washes are often applied to the mold walls to prevent the casting from sticking and to prolong the mold life. Mold costs are generally high so that high-volume production is necessary to justify the expense. Milling Milling is a basic machining process by which a surface is generated progressively by the removal of chips from a workpiece fed into a rotating cutter in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the cutter. Sometimes the workpiece remains stationary, and the cutter is fed to the work. In nearly all cases a multiple-tooth cutter is used so that the material removal rate is high. Often the the desired surface is obtained in a single pass of the cutter or work and, because very good surface finish can be obtained, milling is particularly well suited to and widely used for mass-production work. Several types of milling machines are used ranging from relatively simple and versatile machines that are used for general-purpose machining in job shops and tool-and-die work to highly specialized machines for mass production. Unquestionably, more flat surfaces are produced by milling than by any other machining process. The cutting tool used in milling is known as the milling cutter. Equally spaced peripheral teeth will intermittently engage and machine the workpiece. This is called interrupted cutting. Milling operations can be classified into two broad categories called peripheral milling and face milling. Each has many variations. In peripheral milling the surface is generated by teeth on the periphery of the cutter body. The surface is parallel to the axis of rotation of the cutter. Both flat and formed surfaces can be produced by this method, the cross section of the resulting surface corresponding to the axial contour of the cutter. This method is often called slab milling and is usually performed on horizontal spindle machines. In slab milling, the tool rotates at a certain rpm while work feeds past the tool. Water Jet Cutting Awater jet cutter or just waterjetis a machine capable of cutting intometaland other materials by means of a jet ofwaterat high velocity and pressure. The process is, in theory, the same aswater erosionfound in nature however it is greatly accelerated and concentrated. It is frequently used during manufacture of parts for machinery and other such devices. This is the preferred process when the materials involved are sensitive to the extreme temperatures that friction causes in other methods. Water jet cutting has found applications in a wide range of industries. Examples of these are mining and aerospacewhere it is used for operations such as shaping, cutting and carving. One important advantage of the water jet cutter its function to process material without interfering with the materials inherent structure as there is no heat-affected zone/ Haz. Minimizing the effects of heat allows metals to be processed without altering internal charachteristics. Water jet cutters also have the ability to produce rather detailed cuts in a material. When specialized computer software and 3-D machining tools are used, complex 3-D shapes can be created. The nozzle can be changed and adjusted to give the required cutting width. Typical abrasive cuts are made with a nozzle in the range of 1.016 to 1.27mm, but can be as narrow as 0.508mm. Non-abrasive cuts are normally 0.178 to 0.33mm, but can be as small as 0.076mm, which is roughly the width of a human hair. Small cutters ike these can make very small detail possible in a broad range of tasks. Waterjets are capable of accuracy of 0.13 mm, and repeatability to within a tolerance of 0.03 mm. Water jet cutting is a green technology.Nno hazardous waste is produced which reduces waste costs. Large pieces of recyclable scrap material are cut off using this method which would have been otherwise lost using traditional cutting methods. Waste water is usually clean enough to filter and disguard of down a normal drain. The abrasive is non-toxic and can be recycled for many uses. Water jets also avoid airborne fumes, and contaminates from cutting materials such as asbestos and fiberglass. This really benefits the work environment and greatly reduces any health problems arising from operator exposure. Lever Handel-Perspex Injection moulding Injection moulding is used to produce more thermoplastic products than any other process. Granules of raw material are fed from a hopper by gravity into a pressure chamber ahead of a plunger. As the plunger advances, the plastic is forced through a heated chamber, where it is preheated. From the preheating segment, it is forced through the torpedo section, where it is melted and super-heated to 200-300Â °C. It then leaves this section through a nozzle which seats up against the mold and allows the molten plastic to enter the closed-die cavities through suitable gates and runners. The die remains cool, so the plastic solidifies almost as soon as the mold is filled. To ensure proper filling of the cavity, the material must be forced into the mold rapidly under considerable pressure, typically 35-140 MPa. Premature solidification would cause defective products. While the mold is being opened, the part ejected, and the mold reclosed, the material for the next part is being heated in the torpedo. The complete molding process takes typically between 1 and 30 seconds and is very similar to the die-casting of molten metals. Because thermosetting plastics must be held at an elevated temperature and pressure for sufficient time to permit curing, the injection molding process must be modified for this type of polymer. In the jet molding process the polymer is preheated in the feed chamber to about 95Â °C and then is further heated to the temperature of polymerization as it passes through the nozzle. Additional time in the heated mold completes the curing process. Care must be exercised to prevent the material in the nozzle from cooling during this time and clogging the flow. Water cooling is introduced to the nozzle area as soon as the cavity is nearly filled. The water cools the material in this region and retards the hardening reaction. Because of the long cycle time, little injection molding of thermo-sets is performed. The properties can often compete with die-cast metals, provided the lower rigidity of the polymer is not objectionable. Milling The milling process is the same as before when it was discussed in relation to Aluminium. The only difference now is the material, which is Perspex. Laser cutting Laser-aided cutting has brought about a revolution in the manufacturing industries. These high-powered optical beams are used to cut through a variety of materials such as metal, wood, glass and plastic. The laser is directed at the required surface and moved around to cut the material in the desired shape. Laser cutting gives a finer finish to the end product as compared to conventional cutting methods. A typical laser beam is about 1/5th of a millimeter in width and has an intensity of 1000 to 2000 watts. Most laser cutting machines are integrated into a CAD/CAM system that helps the user design the end product on a computer before implementing it on the work piece. Laser cutting devices are proving beneficial in a wide array of industries. The plastic industry is no exception. These optic powered devices are used to cut precise shapes into plastic or acrylic sheets. The lasers can be used to cut plastics of varying thickness by simply altering the intensity of the beam. Lasers are not only used to cut through plastics but also help engrave on various surfaces. Laser plastic cutting machines bring precision and accuracy to the entire process. Since most machines are fully automated, they can perform complex cutting operations at high-speeds. The laser plastic cutting machines can also be used to cut polymers, polycarbonates and other synthetic materials such as polyesters and rubbers. The laser cutting method uses a non-contact approach when cutting the material. Due to this, the wear and tear associated with conventional methods is absent, preventing the product from any damage and deformation. The laser process also delivers a finish quality unmatched by any other process. When using laser plastic cutting machines, care should be taken to avoid the use of flammable plastics such as PVCs. These materials cannot cope with the heat generated by the laser and get damaged easily. Punches Stainless Steel Extrusion The process begins by heating the stock material. It is then loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may beheat treatedorcold worked. The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the cross-sectional area of the final extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very large while still producing quality parts. Hot extrusion is done at an elevated temperature to keep the material fromwork hardeningand to make it easier to push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 250 to 12,000 tons. Pressures range from 30 to 700MPa (4,400 to 102,000psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep. There are many different variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major characteristics: Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram. If the die is held stationary and the ram moves towards it then its called direct extrusion. If the ram is held stationary and the die moves towards the ram its called indirect extrusion. The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal. The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical. The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) orhydrostatic. A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure (often used for steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for aluminum), or in other specialized processes such as rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous streams of material. Typical extrusion presses cost more than $100,000, whereas dies can cost up to $2000. Springs Steel The following description focuses on the manufacture of steel-alloy, coiled springs. Winding Cold winding Wire up to 0.75 in (18 mm) in diameter can be coiled at room temperature using one of two basic techniques. One consists of winding the wire around a shaft called an arbor or mandrel. This may be done on a dedicated spring-winding machine, a lathe, an electric hand drill with the mandrel secured in the chuck, or a winding machine operated by hand cranking. A guiding mechanism, such as the lead screw on a lathe, must be used to align the wire into the desired pitch (distance between successive coils) as it wraps around the mandrel. Alternatively, the wire may be coiled without a mandrel. This is generally done with a central navigation computer (CNC) machine. Examples of different types of springs. Examples of different types of springs. The wire is pushed forward over a support block toward a grooved head that deflects the wire, forcing it to bend. The head and support block can be moved relative to each other in as many as five directions to control the diameter and pitch of the spring that is being formed. For extension or torsion springs, the ends are bent into the desired loops, hooks, or straight sections after the coiling operation is completed. Hot winding Thicker wire or bar stock can be coiled into springs if the metal is heated to make it flexible. Standard industrial coiling machines can handle steel bar up to 3 in (75 mm) in diameter, and custom springs have reportedly been made from bars as much as 6 in (150 mm) thick. The steel is coiled around a mandrel while red hot. Then it is immediately removed from the coiling machine and plunged into oil to cool it quickly and harden it. At this stage, the steel is too brittle to function as a spring, and it must subsequently be tempered. Assembly Procedure Methods Quality Control Qulaity control is defined as the maintenance of standards of quality of manufactured goods. With this in mind there are a few methods i could employ in the upkeep of quality in the product choosen.

The Shame of Cigarette Smoking in the Healthcare System :: Journalism Journalistic Essays Smoke

Smokers in scrubs: The shame of cigarette smoking in the healthcare system On a recent Thursday morning, while some hospital employees smoked cigarettes in Brigham and Women’s safe haven known as the "butt-hut," others crowded the lobby on Frances Street in Boston to check out the American Cancer Society's â€Å"The Great American Smoke-Out† event. Two women sat behind a folding table handing out informational pamphlets on smoking hazards and ways to kick the fatal habit. Several of the women and men who approached the table for information or signed up to get their lung capacity tested were wearing scrubs, a sign that cigarette smoking is still prevalent among health care employees. â€Å"Hospitals, including Dana Farber, are starting to now reimburse employees who enroll in a quit-smoking program. In some cases, they get back almost $ 500 for counseling, patches, and nicotine gum,† said Jennifer Kelly, who runs the smoking cessation program at Brigham and Women’s. The smoking cessation program is offered to both employees and the public, and provides individual and group counseling, which meets one day a week for eight weeks. Kelly explained that each hour- long session costs $10, however the fee is waived for those with free healthcare benefits or Medicare and all participants of the program receive discounts on nicotine patches and chewing gum. With several Boston area programs designed to rid the habit of the 20% of Massachusetts residence, who smoke and with hospitals practically paying their employees to quit smoking than why are 47 million adults in the U.S. still smoking cigarettes? Nicotine is one of the most addictive substances today; studies have shown that nicotine is as addictive to people as heroin, cocaine and alcohol. According to a study conducted by the American Cancer Society, in the U.S today, nicotine is the most common form of drug addiction among adults, high school students and middle-school students. While studies preformed by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention have shown that cigarette smoking has declined 40% among adults ages 18 and over, between the years of 1965 and 1999 still today, nearly 26% of men and 22% of women smoke cigarettes. Dr. Laura Fredenburgh, a soft spoken and attractive woman in a white coat with her name and title embroidered on the pocket, sat at a long table on Thursday morning. She carefully explained to people the results of their free lung capacity tests that were given during the â€Å"Smoke-Out.

Global Warming and Greenhouse Gas Emissions :: Global Warming Climate Change

Global Warming and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Overall, emissions of CO2 increased by 0.3% to 6.8 tons per person in the United States. Emissions of greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide, which account for 17% of total greenhouse gas emissions, declined by 0.6%. Emissions from the industrial sector declined 1.3% even though the U.S. economy grew 3.9% in 1998. However, CO2 emissions from transportation grew by 2.4% while CO2 emissions of regulated utilities expanded by 3.2% as a result of a hotter than normal summer. Overall, 1999 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions were about 10.7 percent higher than 1990 emissions, which are estimated at 1,655 million metric tons carbon equivalent. The 1.1-percent average annual growth in U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 to 1999 compares with average growth rates of 1.0 percent for the U.S. population, 1.5 percent for energy consumption, 2.2 percent for electric power generation, and 3.1 percent for real GDP Table ES2. U.S. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases, Based on Global Warming Potential, 1990-1999 (Million Metric Tons Carbon Equivalent) Gas 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 P1999 Carbon Dioxide 1,351 1,338 1,365 1,397 1,422 1,435 1,484 1,505 1,507 1,527 Methane 182 183 183 178 179 179 173 172 168 165 Nitrous Oxide 99 101 103 103 111 106 105 104 103 103 HFCs, PFCs, and SF6 24 22 24 24 25 29 33 35 40 38 Total 1,655 1,644 1,675 1,702 1,737 1,748 1,796 1,816 1,818 1,833 P = preliminary data.Note: Data in this table are revised from the data contained in the previous EIA report, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1998, DOE/EIA-0573(98) (Washington, DC, October 1999).Sources: Emissions: Estimates presented in this report. Global Warming Potentials: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Energy End-Use Sector Sources of U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1990-1999 Sector Million Metric Tons Carbon Equivalent PercentChange 1990 1999 1990-1999 1998-1999 Transportation 431.8 496.1 14.9% 2.9% Industrial 454.8 481.2 5.8% 0.2% Commercial 207.7 243.5 17.2% -0.4% Residential 254.2 290.1 14.1% 0.4% Note: Electric utility emissions are distributed across sectors. Total carbon dioxide emissions from the residential sector increased by 0.4 percent in 1999 (Table 6). Year-to-year, residential sector emissions are heavily influenced by weather. For example, in 1996, a relatively cold year, carbon dioxide emissions from the residential sector grew by 5.9 percent over 1995. In 1997, they declined by 0.

The History of the National Transport Safety Board

The National Transport Safety Board in the United States of America was established on the 1st of April 1967, basically relying on the Department of Transportation, for its funding and the administration maintenance. In 1974, the Safety Board Act (in P.L.93-633) was passed by the Congress, which thereafter, separated the board from the department of transportation which allowed the safety agency to carryout the unbiased investigations and also to make recommendations about the safety regulation sine then the NTSB has received a momentous respect from the Congress for its hard work in discovering the needed transportation safety enhancement and maintaining the civic confidence in transportation safety. On 1st October 2002 the funding authorization for the National Transport Safety Board expired but in the second session of the 107th Congress, bills that is the CRS-43H.R. 1527/S. 579 grants for authorization of the funds that are necessary for the expenses of the board. Senator John McCain introduced the reauthorization of the safety board which was therefore prepared and reported positively without adjustments by the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. We see that on 13th March 2003. Representative Don Young established a bill for reauthorization of the board that was to be done on 1st April 2003. Also the House Committee covering Transport and Infrastructure reported a bill on May 1, 2003 the two bills, were to authorize the boards’ appropriations from the year 2003 to the year 2006 in which the same funding was to be provided. [1] Since its launch, the board has been given the responsibility of carrying out investigations on aviation and surface transportation accidents. Due to its high number of investigation recorded, the board is ranked as the worlds leading accident investigation agency. These transportation modes include the highway, marine, pipeline and railroad, therefore, it core objective is presenting safety recommendations that are meant to prevent future transportation accidents, and therefore it comes up with capable causes of the accidents. These investigations are carried out by the boards regional and field officers though they are not the basic sources of information to the board. The board has headquarter offices for all modes of transportation in which various information is requested from. The headquarter offices are situated at 490 L'Enfant Plaza, SW Washington, DC 20594 and they can be contacted by telephone (202) 314-6000 while its conference center is located at 429 L'Enfant Plaza, SW Washington, DC   20594 the location of the offices vary, depending on the mode of transport that the board deals with . The board is also dependable for maintaining the governments records on transportation issues, these records are normally accrued from special studies on transportation protection that are conducted by the board,   these studies basiaclly come up with factual and safety recommendations that are of a nationalized importance. Under this, the board provides investigators who always serve as qualified legislative body which is specified in the international agreements for aviation accidents overseas that usually involve the United States registered aircrafts. The National Transport Safety Board does not carry out regulations over the transportation apparatus, operation and the transportation personnel. The boards’ success in the formation of the transportation safety comes as a result of, its character for fairness and care. The National Transport Safety Board has five Board Members, who are normally chosen by the President and confirmed by the Senate to serve for a period of five years. Therefore a member is nominated by the President as Chairman and another as Vice Chairman for a period of two years These Chairmanship requires a separate Senate verification. In a situation where the chairman is not designated, then the vice chairman acts in place of the chairman. [2] Since the board has no power to regulate the transportation laws in the country it only causes change in the safety implementation of the transportation systems in the USA, therefore, it submits safety proposals to managers, workers, and the users of transportation systems. The safety measures include: improvement of child protection in automobile industry, reduction of fatigue of people from transportation operations, creation of event recorders that includes; video systems, commercial highway vehicle recorders, and an improved flight data recorder. Averting runway incursions at airports; justifying the risks of structural icing on aircraft; and the elimination of the explosive fuel in fuel tanks from the aircrafts to prevent explosions. while on the rail roads, the board comes up with a suggestion of avoiding collision systems, it also improves the safety standards of trucks and buses on the roads, this may require the use of seat belts, it also implements the promotion of highway safety through licensing and also ensuring that the driving laws are adhered to by the members of the country, and in marine transportation, the board enhances the recreational boating safety; and the post-accident drug and alcohol testing. Reports say that, these safety recommendations across all modes of transportation for over 35 years, through which about 82% of the recommendations has led to the implementation of acceptable safety improvements in the United States. The board normally works in collaboration with the department of transport agencies during the drafting of these measures so as to ensure that they are issued earlier and also in a satisfactory manner. The national transport board is given the authority to sign contracts for facilities, technical services, and training in accident investigative theories and practices. Like in a case where the board was given a one year contract for a training site to the George Washington University, and in the year two 2003 it established the National Transport Safety Board(NTSB) Academy on London County Campus of the George Washington University in Ashburn, Virginia. It is also allowed to engage in agreements and other dealings that are important in accomplishing its mission without undergoing the normal procedures of contracts, though the board has been criticized over its financial management it has been struggling to create a balance between the issuing of responsibilities to its investigators to complete their duties on time and efficiently and also providing a better financial management system that is effective in curtailing the fraudulent risks and wastages of resources. [3] Despite the alleged financial mismanagement, the board had to establish a strategic plan that is meant to last for 4 years, the plan was established in the year 2006 and is expected to accomplished its objective in the year 2010, this plan is meant to guide the Agency’s work, by enabling the planning, budgeting and accounting for the work performed by the board. This strategy is to cover various issues, including the accident investigation, support and the boards’ employee’s development and resource management. The current technological complex in the transportation system has made it hard for the agency to meet the challenge of accidents, thus making the agency to enter into a resource declination period whereby, planning is seen to be the most important factor in the utilization of the declining resources. For this reasons, the aircrafts, vehicles, trains, pipelines and marine vessels have safety features integrated in them. Therefore the assignment of the National Transport Safety Board is to, recognize and converse the lessons learned from investigation of transportation accidents. this investigation is normally watchful, experienced and self-regulating in order to prevent the loss of possessions, individual injuries, loss of life and also the environmental harm. Apart from safety measures, the board also carries out the coordination of tragedy backing for, victims and families affected by the transportation accidents; it also arbitrates for the airman and mariner petition, this services are used to maintain the reputation that the transportation system of America   as the safest in the world. [4] Therefore the national board of safety have set plans to have a careful use of the resources by maintaining a motivated, experienced, well trained, equipped and supported workforce which will enable it accomplish its mission this motivation is to be done through   intellectual selection of attempt and masterful implementation of objective; this goes hand in hand with the contribution of the private and public sector partners, who are always cooperative and supportive, the communication of these   recommendations for change in the directive and functions of the services of transportation is also considered. The goals set by the transportation safety board in conjunction with its mission include: Accident investigation under this the board has been maintaining its reaction competence of the accidents and has also increased the examination of occurrence and other negative issues that predicted to be of consequences in the improvement of public transportation protection. The boards’ approaches to accident investigation involve the enhancing of the organizational capacities and investment of the resources to enable the board to recognize and analyze the incidents which will further identify the origin of the transportation accidents. The second goal of the board is the support and Outreach this, objective is to enhance the presence of the national transport safety board in the transportation system whereby, leadership and technical support is used as a factor in giving support to the safety issues in transportation, thus promoting the safety recommendations of the board, this is normally done by, advancing the technical understanding and awareness of the safety issues which reflects the leadership role in the workforce performance. The board also expands and performs procedures that always support the safety recommendations. The board also carries out the reviewing and analyzing the results of the recommendations, whereby the board chooses what measure is proved to be better. While playing its role of leadership the board usually solicit the support of external agencies which may be industries or the government, that assist in the bringing of the transportation issue to the awareness of the transportation society. [5] The board also ensures that, its workforce maintains its knowledge by giving them a chance to play the leadership role with the board and other agencies locally and internationally. The board seeks to improve the productivity of the employees and their satisfaction through a vigilant recruitment, performance compensation, having an interest on their personal needs. It also maintains a working environment that facilitates the performance and the fulfillment of the boards’ workforce. To deal with financial frauds, the board has come up with a resource management system, whereby it evaluates expenditures and fiscal commitments, so as to have an efficient asset management, to enable it have its mission accomplished, this course of management involves the budget implementation as a factor of performance for all stages of management. The reviewing of all actions and costs is carried out whereby; the board members expect the board to finish its mission at a considerable time and with the use of limited resources therefore the national safety board is expected to carry out more investigations on accidents in shorter time and with fewer resources. The cost accounting tools and methods is normally provided by the agency to the program officers so that they can manage resources more effectively. The boards’ performance is usually evaluated by the office of the management and supplemented by the boards’ annual financial audit. The national board of transportation safety provides a room for safety studies that is termed as an assessment of the effectiveness of rules, curriculum, program management and operational regulations and other government agency actions that are implemented to reduce the transportation losses; these studies result in the issuance of a narrative report on the information, conclusions and any valid recommendations on the safety of the travelers. They are normally scheduled irregularly about six weeks after a board meeting is carried out covering the same subject. The schedules for such meetings are usually presented under news and events on the boards’ website, and announced via a press release. [6] Since the board is basically an investigative agency, it carries out a special investigation that is divided into two segments, whereby the first one is defined as an effort of gathering any information concerning the programmed focus selected in support of safety studies under this a report is usually issued, but a file is usually preserved, this file normally contains details, circumstances, and conclusions but will not include the possible cause of the accident. While the second one is an examination of the mechanical issues and safety problems recognized in one or more accident investigations, under this a detailed narrative report is usually developed and approved by the Board, it contains the details, circumstances , conclusions and safety recommendations if necessary. All these records are always available from the boards’ records management division. References: Coyle, J.J.; Bardi, E.J. and Novack, R.A. (2004): Transportation. 5th Edn: Southwestern College Publishing, Cincinnati OFCM (1999): Public-Private Partnership Symposium: Panel on Successful Transportation Partnership; Presentation at the Volpe Center, Boston M A. TRB (2001): Critical Issues in Transportation 2002. Reprinted from TRB News 217; November-December 2001: Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C TRB (2000): Highway Capacity Manual 2000. D.C.: Transportation Research Board. Washington [1] Coyle, J.J.; Bardi, E.J. and Novack, R.A. (2004): Transportation. 5th Edn: Southwestern College Publishing, Cincinnati [2] TRB (2000): Highway Capacity Manual 2000. D.C.: Transportation Research Board. Washington [3] Coyle, J.J.; Bardi, E.J. and Novack, R.A. (2004): Transportation. 5th Edn: Southwestern College Publishing, Cincinnati [4] [5] TRB (2001): Critical Issues in Transportation 2002. Reprinted from TRB News 217; November-December 2001: Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C [6] TRB (2000): Highway Capacity Manual 2000. D.C.: Transportation Research Board. Washington